Oral History and Myth

                       

Introduction

The important terms of methodology under historiography were oral history, folk lore, myth, etc where this paper mainly talks about them which gives the basic information about the headings given in synopsis. It also consist of how the great scholars consider these terms according to their perspectives.    

Synopsis

Ø History

Ø Oral history

Ø Historiography

Ø Myth

Ø Mythology

Ø Folk lore

History

History, study of the past through documents, reports, and other artifacts.  The past can be inferred through many sources chronicles, myths, buildings, monuments, art archeological objects.  Earlier times for which no such sources exist are known as prehistory.  History as a branch of knowledge is generally confined to the written records of human activities, which limits its scope to the invention of writing, about 5,000 years ago.

          The oldest historical writings stem from china, where archeologists found historical records written before 1,000B.C. in the older civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia historical records also appear soon after the introduction of writing.  The conscious writing of history is generally considered to have begun in Greece about the 5^th century B.C with herodotus’s description of the wars between Greece and Persia.  What made his work history was his conscious attempt to record events of importance and to set forth the motivations of the people involved.  This causal approach to events of the past earned Herodotus the title ‘father of history’, although unlike modern historians, he did not try to verify all his facts and mixed tradition, oral remembrances, and fable along with actual occurrences and customs.  A more analytical method of writing about the past was developed by his successor, Thucydides, whose history of the Peloponnesian war is a grave, authentic account of the 27-year war between Athens and Sparta.  A third great Greek historian, Xenophon, concentrated more on the purely narrative aspects of history.  These types of historical writing, the compendious, the analytical, and the roman historians include livy(history from the founding of the city), tacitus (annals and histories) and Julius Caesar (commentaries), although caesar’s work tends more towards reportage than pure history.  During medieval times, Christian monks developed the idea of a universal history which attempted to unite Christian history with the greek and roman records. Eusebius’s ecclesiastical history is an example, as is Saint Augustine’s city of god, which presented, in addition, a philosophy off history.  At the same time, annals of events called chronicles were compiled, mainly by members of the clergy.  Bede’s ecclesiastical history of the English nation was the great historical work of the middle ages.

 In more modern times, history developed into a serious discipline pursued by scholars.    Edward Gibbson’s history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire (1776-88) is an early example of dedicated and thorough scholarship.  In the 1800s critical, objective history developed into an academic discipline, as exemplified by the works of the German historian Leopold von ranke and his followers. This German school established canons of criticism and methods of historical analysis that are still in evidence today.  The 20^th century saw a broadening of the scope of history up until the 19^th century.  Today, events of the past are analyzed using tools form many disciplines, including economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology.  Our technological society also fostered an interest in the history of science and in the effect technology has on society.  Today, all aspects of the life of peoples and societies form the proper concern of historians.

Oral history

                    "Oral History" is used to refer to formal, rehearsed accounts of the past presented by culturally sanctioned tradition-bearers; to informal conversations about "the old days" among family members, neighbors, or coworkers; to printed compilations of stories told about past times and present experiences; and to recorded interviews with individuals deemed to have an important story to tell.

                    Shortly after Abraham Lincoln's death in 1865, for example, his secretary, John G. Nicolay, and law partner, William Herndon, gathered recollections of the sixteenth president, including some from interviews, from people who had known and worked with him. Similarly, social investigators historically have obtained essential information about living and working conditions by talking with the people who experienced them. Thus, the Pittsburgh Survey, a Progressive Era investigation of social conditions in that city designed to educate the public and prod it towards civic reform, relied heavily on evidence obtained from oral sources.

                    The oral histories of the men and women of the anthracite region in general render a complicated picture of economic crisis. It is not difficult to understand how, in interview after interview, oral history opens up new views of the past. Of course, not all oral history falls into the category of social history. Interviews abound with politicians and their associates, with business leaders, and the cultural elite. In addition to recording the perspectives of those in power, these interviews typically get at "the story underneath the story," the intricacies of decision-making, the personal rivalries and alliances and the varying motives underlying public action, that are often absent from the public record.

Historiography

Historiography is the history of history. The subject of historiography is the history of the history of the event: the way it has been written, the sometimes conflicting objectives pursued by those writing on it over time, and the way in which such factors shape our understanding of the actual event at stake, and of the nature of history itself. Historiography questions three things they are who, how and what

.

• Who writes history, with what agenda in mind, and towards what ends?
• How accurate can a historian be analyzing past events from the vantage point of the historian's present?
• What about the types of sources both primary and secondary, an historian chooses to base his or her work upon?

Myth

          Over time the meaning of the word myth and the effect that myths themselves have had on society has been hypothesized and expounded upon by many individuals from some of the most respected theorists to the most humble field worker

Throughout the centuries, however, the Greek “mythos” and subsequently the English “myth” has endured many different interpretations from many different theologians and philosophers. Although the meanings of many words and phrases have been, and still are, debated on a continuous basis, the deliberation over the semantic meaning of few other words has had such a far reaching effect on various cultures and human society as a whole.

According to Edward D. Ives, No song, no performance, no act of creation can be properly understood apart from the culture or subculture in which it is found and of which it is a part; nor should any "work of art” be looked on as a thing in itself apart from the continuum of creation-consumption.

The meaning of the word “myth” itself has been debated for centuries. “The English word “myth” derives from the Greek word mythos…” One of the earliest documented uses of the word mythos is found in Hesiod’s Theogony (app. 700 BCE) in which mythos seems to have meant something like “divinely inspired”.

A myth is a story based on tradition or legend, which has a deep symbolic meaning.  A myth ‘conveys a truth’ to those who tell it and hear it, rather than necessarily recording a true event.  Although some myths can be accounts of actual events, they have become transformed by symbolic meaning or shifted in time or place.   Myths are often used to explain universal and local beginnings and involve supernatural beings.  The great power of the meaning of these stories, to the culture in which they developed, is a major reason why they survive as long as they do sometimes for thousands of years.

Mythology

The term "mythology" can refer either to the study of myths or to a body or collection of myths. Mythology, stories or explanations of the origin and meaning of the world and the universe and their relation to a particular culture or civilization.  Mythological stories differ from folk tales and legends in that they tend to be integrated in the religious doctrine of a particular culture or civilization and are considered sacked and factual.  Mythological stories also contain supernatural and divine elements.  Folk tales and legends, on the other hand, are more lighthearted, entertaining, and fictive.  Though mythological stories are characteristic of the pre-scientific world many aspects and beliefs of the modern world perpetuate the mythic tradition.

The most well-known myths in western civilization are those of ancient Greece.  The historic sources for our knowledge of this mythology are the theogeny by Hesiod and the illaid and the odyssey by homer.  All three works date from the 8^th century B.C other significant mythological systems are Teutonic, or Norse, mythology of Scandinavia and Germany.

The sources for this mythology are the eddas.  The source for the Hindu mythology of Scandinavia and Germany.  The source for the Hindu mythology of Asia and India are the Vedas.  The basis of Irish Celtic mythology is three cycles of stories-the mythological cycle, the Ulster cycle, and the Fenian cycle.  Other significant mythological systems are those of Africa, native America and the pacific islands.  Many theories have been developed by scholars about how and why myths began.  Some of the more significant theories are those of euhemerism, the Greek scholar who believed that myths began.  Some of the more significant theories are those of wuhemerus, the Greek scholar who believed that myths are based on historical fact; Friedrich Max Muller, a German scholar who held that mythic heroes were representations of nature; Sir Edward burnet tylor, an English anthropologist who stated that myths were an attempt to explain the unexplainable events in dreams.

Folk lore

          Folk lore, traditional beliefs, customs, and superstitions of a culture, handed down informally in fables, myths, legends, proverbs, riddles, songs, and ballads.  Folklore studies were developed in the 1800s, largely through collection and collation of material by the Grimm brothers in germanh and folklore societies were set up in Europe and the United States. The American folklore society was founded in 1888.  Folklore themes are echoed and paralleled among distinct and isolated.  One of the major studies of this phenomenon is Sir James Frazer’s Golden bough (1890).

According to Barbro Klein, 'Folklore' has four basic meanings. First, it denotes oral narration, rituals, crafts, and other forms of vernacular expressive culture. Second, folklore, or ‘folkloristics,’ names an academic discipline devoted to the study of such phenomena. Third, in everyday usage, folklore sometimes describes colorful ‘folkloric’ phenomena linked to the music, tourist, and fashion industries. Fourth, like myth, folklore can mean falsehood.

According to Henry Glassie,"Folklore,” though coined as recently as 1846, is the old word, the parental concept to the adjective "folk.” Customarily folklorists refer to the host of published definitions, add their own, and then get on with their work, leaving the impression that definitions of folklore are as numberless as insects. But all the definitions bring into dynamic association the ideas of individual creativity and collective order.

William A. Wilson says “Surely no other discipline is more concerned with linking us to the cultural heritage from the past than is folklore; no other discipline is more concerned with revealing the interrelationships of different cultural expressions than is folklore; and no other discipline is so concerned …with discovering what it is to be human. It is this attempt to discover the basis of our common humanity, the imperatives of our human existence, that puts folklore study at the very center of humanistic study.”

Folklore comprises the unrecorded traditions of a people; it includes both the form and content of these traditions and their style or technique of communication from person to person.

Folklore is the traditional, unofficial, non-institutional part of culture. It encompasses all knowledge, understandings, values, attitudes, assumptions, feelings, and beliefs transmitted in traditional forms by word of mouth or by customary examples.

Conclusion

          The perspective varies from person to person, country to country and culture to culture. The history, folk lore, myth, mythology were briefly elaborated above which gives the basic meaning of these terms and also how the great scholars coined these terms according to their perspectives.

References                                                     

Barbro Klein. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences.                    Volume 8. Pp. 5711-5715. New York: Elsevier, 2001.

Edward D. Ives. Joe Scott, the Woodsman-Songmaker. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978.

Henry Glassie. The Spirit of Folk Art. New York: Abrams, 1989.

Jan Brunvand. The Study of American Folklore: An Introduction, 2nd edition. New York: W.W.Norton, 1978.

Leonard, S. & McClure, M. Myth &knowing: An introduction to world mythology, Chapter 1. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Ney York. 2004.   

Michael D. Harkavy.  The new websters international encyclopedia vol 4.Pp 498-499,  Naples : Trident Press International, 1996.

Michael D. Harkavy. The new websters international encyclopedia  vol 6.394, Naples : Trident Press International, 1996.

Thomas Dublin. When the Mines Closed: Stories of Struggles in Hard Times. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998.

William A. Wilson. The Deeper Necessity: Folklore and the Humanities. Journal of American Folklore101:400, 1988.

Independent India 1947-67

Introduction.

            India’s independence represented for its people the start of an epoch that was imbued with a new vision. In 1947, the country commenced its long march to overcome the colonial legacy of economic development, gross poverty, and near total illiteracy, wide prevalence of disease and stark social inequality and injustice. Starting off with a broad social consensus on the basic contours of the India that was to be built-on the values of nationalism, secularism and democracy and the goals of rapid economic development and radical social change-was a great advantage.

The Basic Goals.

            The first and most important task was to preserve, consolidate and strengthen India’s unity, to push forward the process of making of the Indian nation, and to build up and protect the national state as an instrument of development and social transformation. The social scene also called for rapid transformation,   untouchability, polygamy, woman had no right of inheritance, nor the right of divorce and the lack of education. The founders of the Indian Republic had the farsightedness and the courage to commit themselves to two major innovations of historical significance in nation-building and social engineering: first to build a democratic and civil libertarian society among an illiterate people and second, to undertake economic development within a democratic political structure. 

Political Leadership.

            India’s survival and growth as a nation and a democratic polity, as also the achievement of the national objectives set by the freedom struggle depended on the configuration and development of long-term socio economic and political forces. But the quality, skill and approach of the political leaders would inevitable role and the high quality of leadership was not confined only to the congress party but it was a group activity of all denomination, like the conservative Swatantra was headed by C. Rajagopalachari, the dissident Congressmen by J. B. Kripalani, the Hindu communalists by Shyama Prasad Mookerjee, the non-congress dalits by B. R. Ambedkar, the Socialists by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash Narayan, and communists by P. C. Joshy, Ajoy Ghosh and E. M. S. Namboodiripad.

The colonial legacy: India’s colonial past was weighed heavily in her development since 1947. In the economic sphere, as in others, British rule drastically transformed India. These changes – in agriculture, industry, transport and communication, finance, administration, education, and so on-were in themselves often positive, as for example the development of railways. During this period per capita income of agriculture were decreased. Also education, Handicraft business etc… were deteriorated.

Evolution of the Constitution: The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950. Since then the day is celebrated as Republic Day. The Constitution of India lays down a set of rules to which the ordinary laws of the country must confirm. It provides a framework for a democratic and parliamentary form of government. It also includes a list of fundamental Rights and Directive Principles.

The Architecture of the Constititution: The Constitution supposed to have a basic structure which cannot be altered. This was spelt out by the full bench of the Supreme Court in 1973 in the Kesavananda Bharati judgment.

Consolidation of India as a Nation: A major problem, perhaps the most serious one that India has faced since 1947 has been of national unity or consolidation of the nation.

·         Unity in Diversity: The national movement played a pivotal role in welding Indians together politically and emotionally into a nation and integrating them into ‘a common framework of political identity and loyalty.’

·         The Language Problem: The language problem was the most divisive issue in the first twenty years of independent India. Consequently, linguistic identity has been a strong force in all societies. The Indian Constitution recognizes sixteen major languages, including English and Sanskrit. Hindi become the official language of India. There was a major problem about official and linguistic language, was a gap between Hindi-knowing and non-Hindi-knowing people. There Nehru’s approach was very interesting, in parliament on 7 August 1959 he made a statement, ‘I would have English as an alternative language as long as the people require it, and I would leave the decision not to the Hindi-knowing people, but to the non-Hindi-knowing people.’ He also told the people of south that ‘if they do not want to learn Hindi, let them not learn Hindi.’ He assured it again in the parliament on 4 September 1959.

·         Then they reorganized the states their own linguistic basis, eg. Kerala-Malayalam, Tamilnadu-Tamil, Andhra-Telugu, etc…

·         The preservation of the Tribal people’s rich social and cultural heritage lay at the heart of government. Jawaharlal Nehru was the main influence in uplifting and shaping tribals to the part of India. 

The years of Hope and Achievement, 1951-64

            The years from 1951-64 were those of maturity and achievement, also marked by high hopes and aspirations, optimism and confidence. Democracy took a giant step forward with the first general election held in 1951-52 over a four month period, it was the biggest experiment in democracy anywhere in the world. Under Nehru’s leadership the cabinet system evolved in a healthy manner and functioned effectively.

The administrative structure: while retention of the existing bureaucracy and the administrative structure was inevitable and perhaps even sound under the circumstances.

Development of Science and Technology: a major achievement of the Nehru era was in the fields of scientific research and technological education. He convinced that science and technology were crucial to the solution of India’s problem.

Social change: the vision of the founding fathers of the Republic went beyond national integration and political stability.

Education: the founding fathers were fully aware of the need for better and wider education as an instrument of social and economic progress, equalization of opportunity and the building up of a democratic society.  

Community Development Programme: Two major programmes for rural uplift, namely the Community Development Programme and Panchayat Raj were introduced in 1952 and 1959; their basic purpose was to change the face of rural India, to improve the quality of life of the people.

Jawaharlal Nehru in Historical Perspective.

            Jawaharlal Nehru can be justifiably considered the architect of modern India. Nehru resisted all pressures and refused to become the pawn of world superpowers, USA & Soviet Union. India’s internal policies right or wrong developed outside the direct influence of the superpowers, and India remained in full control of her internal as well as external policies and also he successfully resisted penetration of India’s political and economic structure and institutions by outside agencies.

Foreign National Unity.

Nehru succeeded in maintaining and strengthening the national unity forged during the freedom struggle and in checking the disruptive forces, consolidating the nation and independent state and promoting the psychological integration of the Indian people. As per Nehru India was not yet a structured nation but a nation-in-the-making. The Five year plans lay the concept of national unity.

Nehru’s different perspectives.

·         Nurturing Democracy and Parliamentary Government.

·         Building Socialism.

·         Planning for Economic Development.

·         Opposing communalism.

·         Opposing conservatism.

Political Parties, 1947-64: The Congress.

            India is virtually the only post-colonial nation to sustain a system of parliamentary government for over fifty years after independence. It is true that throughout the Nehru years Congress was dominant politically and retained power at the centre and almost all the states. But simultaneously, a multi-party system, like the Socialist Party, the Communist Party, the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party and the Bharatiya Jan Sangh, were started in 1951-52.

Indian Economy, 1947-65 the Nehruvian Legacy.

            A meaningful appraisal of India’s development experience after independence would have to place it both a historical and comparative context. An extreme poverty, illiteracy, a ruined agriculture and industry, the structural distortions created by colonialism in the Indian economy and society made the future transition to self-sustained growth much more difficult. So India needs an economic development.

Planning and Public Sector.

The Planning Commission established five year plan on 15 March 1950, which laid the economic foundation of India and Nehru himself as its chairperson. He played a key role in this commission.

1.      The first plan (1951-56): tried to complete projects at hand and to meet the immediate crisis situation following the end of the war.

2.      The Second plan (1956-61): the celebrated Nehru-Mahalanobis (Prof.P.C.Mahalanobis played a leading role in drafting the second plan) strategy of development was put into practice.

3.      The Third plan (1961-66): it was the continuation of second plan and the basic element was the rapid development of heavy and capital goods industries in India, mainly in the public sector.

Achievements.

            The achievements and benefits of first two Five Year Plans, which conceived in Nehru years, were to be felt in the years following his death. The overall economy performed impressively compared to the colonial period, its national income or Gross National Product (GNP) grew at an average rate of about 4 per cent per annum.

Land Reforms: Ceiling and the Bhoodan Movement.

Land Ceiling.

            A major plank of the land reform effort in India was the imposition of ceilings on the size of landholdings, with the objective of making land distribution more equitable. The all India Kisan Sabha had supported the demand for a maximum limit of 25acres per landholder in 1946. There happened some weaknesses in Land Legislation that is the inequality of ceiling limit, a large number of exemptions, etc… Finally the ceiling legislation loosed its purpose.

The Bhoodan Movement.

            Bhoodan was an attempt at land reform, at bringing about institutional changes in agriculture, like land redistribution through a movement and not simply through government legislation. Eminent Gandhian constructive worker, Acharya Vinoba Bhave, drew upon Gandhian techniques and ideas such as constructive work and trusteeship to launch this movement in the early fifties. Vinoba Bhave organized an all-India federation of constructive workers, the Sarvodaya Samaj, which was to take up the task of a non-violent social transformation in the country. He and his followers were to do ‘Padayatra,’ walk on foot from village to village to persuade the larger landowners to donate at least one-sixth of their lands as bhoodan or ‘land-gift’ for distribution among the landless and the land poor. The target was to get as donation 50million acres, which was one-sixth of the 300million acres of cultivable land in India. The idea was that each average family of five should give up one-sixth of their land accepting the poor landless man as a member of the family.

White Revolution.

            The Gandhian freedom fighter, Tribhuvandas K. Patel, who patiently roamed the villages on foot to persuade farmers to form milk cooperatives, became the first chairman of the union in January 1947 and continued to be elected to this position for over 25 years. Dr. Varghese Kurien (died on last month), the brilliant engineer from Kerala and later the heart and soul of the white revolution in India, was the celebrated and proud employee of the Kaira farmers, and the chief executive of the union from 1950-73, though he has continued his close association with the union till last month.     

Green Revolution.

The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.[1]

Conclusion.

            India is a developing country, since 1947 (freedom from colonialism) India faced many kinds of challenges for developments. Now India placed a good position in global map. Struggles and sufferings of Indian people for her freedom movement are very important to the history of India.

Web&Bibliography.

1.      Chandra, Bipan, Aditya Mukherjee, Mridula Mukherjee. India After Independence, New Delhi: VIKING Penguin Books India (p) Ltd, New Delhi.

2.      Majumdar Raychaudhari and Datta, An Advanced History of India, New York: Macmillan St. Martins Press, New York, 1967.

3.      www.indianherritage.com

4.      www.enotes.cm

5.      www.historyguide.com

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[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution

Life of Ephrem

            In the history of Christianity, martyrs played a main role. Martyrs are the one who gave their whole life for the development of the Christianity they lived a life as a witness to Christ, they are even  willing to give their life for Christ. That much faith is filled within them. This is the context where many martyrs gave their life for the Christ, let us discuss about the life of Ephraim or Ehprem briefly.

Deacon confessor and doctor of the church

            St. Ephrem lived around (306 to 373) in Iraq. He is famously known as the Deacon confessor and doctor of the church.  Ephrem was a native of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, the son of a pagan priest, and while stilla youth was driven from his home when his sympathy for the chirstian faith was discovered.

            St. James, the noted bishop of Nisbis, saw to his spiritual instruction; it is believed that the then spent eight years with the monks in the Egyptian desert, and that st Basil the great ordained him a Deacon.  He consistently declined the priesthood, however, and years later also the episcopate.

            The Roman Empire was losing its eastern provinces in its wars with the Persians, and in 363 the city of Nisbis had to be returned to Persia.  That was a hard blow for the Christian colony, given the fierce persecutionof their faith being carried on in all Persian territory.  The faithful thus fled the city in great numbers.  Ephrem too went and settled in Edessa, the capital of Osrhoene, where he spent the last ten years of his life as hermit and strict ascetic.

Edessa was at that time a hotbed of heresy, there existing no less than ten heretical sects.  Ephrem took issue with them all, both by preaching and by writing. He was apparently one of the chief founders of the famous theological “school of the Persians”, where Persian masters instructed the refugees from Nisbis.

Declared Doctor of the church by pope Benedict XV in 1920, st Ephrem is referred to as the “sun of the syrians” and the “Harp of the Holy spirit” because he was the most prolific writer of Bible commentaries in the Syrian church and composed a large number of liturgical hymns.  The latter were particularly aimed at refusing the errors of the Gnostics, which were being successfully propagated by verse and song.  In fact, his influence among both the Syrians and the Persians was so great that 20 years after his death St. Jerome had this to say of him “Ephrem a Deacon of the church at Edessa, wrote many works in Syriac and became so famous that in osme churches his writings  are read out publicly after the sacred scriptures”.

One of the famous quote by Ephrem was “virginity will serve as a chriot, lifting heavenward all those who guard it, as did Elias”.

World Council of Churches (WCC) 1948

Introduction

Global mission conference in Edinburgh, 1910 is often called the birth place of the ecumenical movement. When gospel was preached in many lands people came to view differences of doctrine, church government and style of worship which divided the churches and made proclaiming the gospel a difficult task.[1] At the beginning of nineteenth century William Carey from Calcutta wrote a letter to his mission society in London, proposing global Christian conferences. From there arose three streams of development IMC, Faith and Order, and Life and work, which were merged together with WCC.

2. Background of World Council of Churches (WCC)

2.1 The Patriarchal Encyclical of 1920

Following the tragedy of the First World War, there were some significant signs that the major churches and church leaders were beginning to address in a new manner the difficulties of Christian disunity as well as the need to change attitudes and to seek reconciliation. The bilateral theological dialogues and opportunities for prayer that developed during the late nineteenth century led to the involvement of Anglican, Orthodox, Old Catholic, and Protestant churches in the Faith and Order and Life and Work movements of the early twentieth century. As early as 1919, the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, known as the

Ecumenical Patriarchate formally began a study of the possibility of proposing the establishment of a League of Churches that would bring them together for discussion and common witness. The discussions within the patriarchate led to the publication in January 1920 of an unparalleled encyclical addressed “Unto all the Churches of Christ Everywhere.”[2] The letter is the first formal statement of the twentieth century to be addressed from a church to other churches of different Christian traditions that raises the issue of reconciliation and unity. The encyclical sent greetings to all the churches and invited them to consider seriously the formation of a Fellowship (koinonia) of Church.

2.2 Complementary Proposals: Three Visionaries

The proposal of Constantinople was unique because it came in a formal manner from a church. Indeed, the proposal originated from the senior patriarchate of Orthodox Christianity. During the same time, there were a number of Anglican and Protestant church leaders who also made similar proposals to establish some form of global council that would bring together representatives of the churches for the sake of reconciliation and unity. Archbishop Nathan Soderblom (1866-1931) of the Lutheran Church of Sweden, in September 1919, had also raised the possibility of organizing a global, ecumenical Council of Churches. In subsequent years, J.H. Oldham (1874-1969) also made a strong contribution to the plan. This distinguished Baptist layman from England had been very active in the work of the International Missionary Council and in the Life and Work Movement.[3] As a result of his early ecumenical work, Oldham also came to recognize the importance of establishing a global body, which would be rooted in the churches and would also bring together the various elements of the developing ecumenical movement. The views of Archbishop William Temple (1881-1944) of England also had a profound impact on the movement to establish an organization to serve the churches in their ecumenical activities. As a result of his own involvement in a number of early ecumenical organizations, Temple had also come to see the importance of council related directly to the churches.

2.3 Committee to form WCC

Life and Work and Faith and Order accepted the proposal and appointed seven members to a committee and it called as the committee of fourteen to form the WCC. The committee met at Utrecht, (Netherland) in May 1938, a provisional committee was created to form WCC. William Temple as Chairman, W.A. Visser’t Hooft as general secretary.  The provisional committee established solid foundation for the WCC by resolving constitutional questions concerning its basis, authority and structure. In October- November 1938, it sends out formal invitations to 196 churches and Temple wrote a personal letter to the Vatican secretary of state.[4]

In 1939 the provisional committee planned the first WCC general assembly for August 1941.But the World War II intervened and delayed for another decade. But for ten years the WCC had been in process of formation.[5] The period1940-1946 the committee could not function properly, but the leaders gathered in USA, England and Switzerland. In Geneva Visser took of several activities during war which contributed to supra natural witness of the church: chaplaincy service among prisoners of war, assistance to Jews and other refugees. After the war the provisional committee met in Geneva in 1946 and Samuel M Cavert suggested the Name “World Council of Churches” (WCC).[6] The committee affirmed that the tragic war experience increased the churches determination to manifest their fellowship. By 1948, 90 churches had accepted the invitation to join WCC. The inaugural assembly convened on 22, August 1948 in which 147 churches from 44 countries ready to participate in the WCC, but there was no sign of Roman Catholics. It became the most visible international expression of varied streams of ecumenical life in the 20^th century.

The constitution of WCC and the newly organized fellowship of churches issued its message. “Christ has made us His own and he is not divided. In seeing him we find one another. Here at Amsterdam we have committed ourselves afresh to him, and have covenanted with one another in constituting the WCC, we intend to stay together.”[7] The formation was raised to an official level, comments and reflections were made as draft entitled the Ecclesiological Significance of the WCC which was submitted to the central committee at Toronto in1950, also called as Toronto Statement clearly declares: “The WCC is not and must never become a Super-Church.” Its competence does not even cover union negotiations; its purpose is “to bring the churches into living contact with each other.” At Amsterdam the world council represented only a stage in a process. The churches themselves accepted the responsibility for the ecumenical movement and that the ecumenical movement received a firm foundation in the continuous life of churches.[8]

3. Basis of WCC

The inaugural assembly declared that “The World council of churches is a fellowship of churches which accept our Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior”. Two main comments are it lacked the Trinitarian concept and no specific reference to the Bible. This formulation gave rise to controversies. Later at New Delhi third assembly reformulated as “ a fellowship of churches which confess the Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior according to scriptures, and therefore see to fulfill together their common calling to the glory of the one God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.”[9] It is not a confession of faith.

4. Purposes and functions of WCC

The World Council of Churches is constituted by the churches to serve the one ecumenical movement. It incorporates the work of the world movements for Faith and Order and Life and Work, the International Missionary Council, and the World Council of Christian Education.

Ø  The primary purpose of the fellowship of churches in the World Council of Churches is to call one another to visible unity in one faith and in one Eucharistic fellowship, expressed in worship and common life in Christ, through witness and service to the world, and to advance towards that unity in order that the world may believe.

Ø   It promote the prayerful search for forgiveness and reconciliation in a spirit of mutual accountability, the development of deeper relationships through theological dialogue, and the sharing of human, spiritual and material resources with one another.[10]

Ø  Facilitate common witness in each place and support each other in their work for mission and evangelism.

Ø  It express their commitment to diakonia in serving human need, breaking down barriers between people, promoting one human family in justice and peace, and upholding the integrity of creation, so that all may experience the fullness of life.

Ø  It focus nurture the growth of an ecumenical consciousness through processes of education and a vision of life in community rooted in each particular cultural context; assist each other in their relationships to and with people of other faith communities.

Ø  In order to strengthen the one ecumenical movement, the Council will foster the living fellowship of the member churches and the coherence of the one ecumenical movement and nurture relations with and among churches, especially within but also beyond its membership.[11]

Ø  Establish and maintain relations with national councils, regional conferences of churches, organizations of Christian world communions and other ecumenical bodies.

5. Organization set up of WCC

The World Council of Churches shall discharge its functions through an assembly, a central committee, an executive committee, and other subordinate bodies as may be established.

5.1 The assembly

The assembly shall be the supreme legislative body governing the World Council of Churches and shall ordinarily meet probably at eight-year intervals. The assembly shall be composed of official representatives of the member churches, known as delegates, elected by the member churches. The assembly shall be an expression of the living fellowship of member churches, shall strengthen the one ecumenical movement, and shall have the following functions like to elect the president or presidents of the World Council of Churches; to elect not more than 145 members of the central committee from among the delegates which the member churches have elected to the assembly,  to determine the overall policies of the World Council of Churches and to review programmes undertaken to implement policies previously adopted.

5.2 The central committee

The central committee shall be that governing body of the World Council of Churches with primary responsibility and authority to carry out the vision and policies of the assembly and to determine and develop the strategies to do so; deepen the living fellowship of member churches, and shall include opportunities for fulfilling together the common calling that is the basis of membership; be responsible for elaborating institutional and programmatic strategic plans based on the policies adopted by the assembly and for ensuring their implementation. A vacancy in the membership of the central committee, occurring between meetings of the assembly, shall be filled by the central committee itself after consultation with the church of which the person previously occupying the position was a member. The central committee has a power to elect the executive committee from among the members of the central committee; to elect committees, commissions, and consultative bodies.

7. Criteria to be eligible to WCC

The church has a sustained independent life and organization, including the right to decide to apply for WCC membership without the permission of anybody or person, and must practice constructive ecumenical relations with other Churches in its country and region. A member of 25,000 and between 10,000 and 25,000 members may become associate member Churches; if they fulfill other criteria. Becoming a WCC member signifies Church’s faithfulness to the basis of the council, fellowship in the council, participation in the life and work of the council and commitment to the ecumenical movement as integral to the mission of the church. There is no annual membership fee, but it is the responsibilities of membership that churches make an annual contribution to the general budget and programmes of the WCC, with their resources.[12]

8. Theology of WCC

Theology is understood as reflection on the Christian faith. The theological reflection crystallized into a discussion within the WCC of a “vital and coherent theology.” Several years discussions were held with the participation of three theologians Jose Miguez –Bonimo Argentina, Paulos Mar Gregorious and M.M Thomas from India.[13] A major WCC emphasis during this period was Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation (JPIC). In several ways JPIC illustrated the promise and the problems of trying to do theology ecumenically.

The major recommendation from the “vital and coherent theology” discussion in the WCC was to encourage more interaction among the various sectors of the council. The call for coherence does not mean that there is or can be a single normative ecumenical theology. German ecumenical theologian Konard Raiser has traced the history of ecumenical theology in five overlapping phases:

1.      Ecumenical beginnings owed much to the evangelical revival of the 19^th century and its reaction against widespread indifference to the gospel. This was largely a non-intellectual, non-denominational theology. Indeed the birth place of ecumenical movement did not discuss doctrinal divisions.

2.      Protestant liberalism was in the preeminence from mid 1920s. The life and work movement reflected many of the impulses associated with “social gospel”- a term still used negatively by some critics of WCC involvement in economic and political questions.

3.      Karl Barth, Reinhold Niebuhr and Emil Brunner insisted theology depends only on God’s self-revelation in scripture, not on human culture, became more and more influential in the ecumenical movement up to the end of World War II.

4.      Biblical theology – interpreting the Bible from the point of view of Jesus Christ as the center of the history of salvation- dominated ecumenical theology in the first years of the WCC.

5.      Systematic theologies of Barth, Tillich and others waned in the early 1960s; the ecumenical movement rediscovered a prophetic tradition of theology relevant by “contextualizing” it, rooting it in its historical and cultural setting.

Hence there is diversity of theologies within the ecumenical movement today. Alongside attempts to produce traditional theologies, on the basis of a Christian confession, and efforts at consensus theology acceptable across traditional lines, there are called genitive theologies (theology of revolution, theology of poor) and adjectival theologies (feminist, black theologies).  All these theologies are contextual, for each arises from a given context. Their existence within one ecumenical movement is not in itself a mark of incoherence, but reflects the movement’s diversity and vitality. As Miguez puts, the coherence needed in ecumenical theology is that of a living, growing organism, not the mechanical coherence of a smoothly running machine. Theology reflection on the faith in ongoing dialogue with the tradition will continue to be on the ecumenical agenda.[14]

9. WCC assemblies

9.1 First assembly

The first assembly met at Amsterdam, Netherlands, 22 August to 4 September 1948; 351 delegates from 147 churches under the theme “Man’s disorder and God’s Design”; At the assembly in Amsterdam, four sections were organized to examine aspects of the theme (1) The universal church in God’s design, (2) the church’s witness to God’s design, (3) the church and the disorder of society, (4) the church and the international order.

The WCC first assembly marked the assumption by the churches of responsibility for the ecumenical movement as its message made clear: “Here at Amsterdam we have committed ourselves afresh to him, and have covenanted with one another in constituting this world council of churches. We intend to stay together.”[15] Most of the participants were from North America and Western Europe, only 30 from Asia, Africa and Latin America. Amsterdam clearly said that the churches had decided to come together in accordance with the will of the Lord of the church. The first assembly adopted the WCC constitution, laid conditions for membership, outlined programmes, discussed relationships with other ecumenical bodies and addressed a message to churches-a practice repeated by succeeding assemblies. The assembly discussed on various issues such as Evangelism, mission, a responsible society and opposed war and imperialism.

9.2 Second assembly

At Evanston, USA, 15 to 31 August 194; 502 delegates, from 161 member churches, the theme is “Christ-the Hope of the World”; The Assembly divided its work into six sections: (1) Our ones in Christ and our disunity as churches, (2) the mission of the church to those outside her life, (3) the responsible society in a World perspective, (4) Christians in the struggle for world community, (5) the churches amid racial and ethnic tensions, (6) the laity: the Christian in his vocation.

Against the background of the cold war and the concern of racism, the assembly struggled with the theme of Christian hope. Among many of the European Protestants, the emphasis was upon the theme of the future Kingdom of God. Many American Protestants, however, rooted in the Social Gospel tradition, stressed the importance of the present actions of Christians in society. This provided the context for discussions on Christian disunity, the mission of the Church, the responsible society, world community, racial and ethnic tensions, the laity, and the Christian vocation. The harsh distinctions, rooted in Western Christianity and expressed in these discussions, however, were generally alien to Orthodox participants and their theological perspectives. Indeed, the nature of the theological discussions placed the Orthodox delegates in a very difficult position, for they were not sympathetic to the various Protestant perspectives. Because of this, the Orthodox delegates produced two separate statements that spoke of their understanding of the main theme “Christ, the Hope of the World” and of the Assembly Report dealing with “The Division of the Christian Churches.”[16] Both of these statements indicated that the Orthodox could not accept the view of the church as comprised of a number of denominations with their own perspectives and teachings.

9.3 Third assembly

At New Delhi, 19 November to 5 December 1961; 577 delegates from 197 member churches, theme is “Jesus Christ- the light of the world”; Discussion included in three main sections (1) Witness, (2) service, (3) unity.

The theme was again Christocentric, not discussed the issue of world religions. The IMC was integrated into WCC becoming the division on World mission and evangelism. WCC basis was extended by approval the phrase according to scriptures and the Trinitarian formula. The presence of orthodox churches, two Pentecostal churches from Chile, 11 African churches, 5 Asian churches, 2 South American, and 5 were from Europe and North America joined newly to WCC. The assembly faced theological problem of understanding other religions in the light of Jesus Christ. The problems of the third world political, economic, and social change were discussed and moreover stressed on unity of churches.

9.4 Fourth assembly

At Uppsala, Swedan, 4 to 20 July 1968; 704 delegates, from 235 member churches met and discussed on the theme “Behold, I Made all Things New”. The assembly at Uppsala tire further testimony to the expanding membership of the Council, as well as the fresh breezes of Vatican II that brought Catholic observers to participate in the meeting and discuss further opportunities for cooperation. Sections were organized under the headings:  (1) The Holy Spirit and the catholicity of the church, (2) renewal in mission, (3) world economic and social development, (4) towards justice and peace in international affairs, (5) worship, (6) towards new styles of living.

Uppsala, the WCC’s most activist and politically oriented assembly can be seen as ending an era in the ecumenical movement and making a new beginning. Uppsala set the unity and catholicity of the church squarely within the sphere of God’s activity in history. The idea of a genuinely universal council, able to speak for all Christians was articulated. Jesuit Roberto Tucci referred the possibility of the Roman Catholic Church joining the WCC- a challenge that was seriously discussed in the following years.  The impact of globalization was discussed, it describes worship as ethical and social in nature and thus oriented towards the social injustice and divisions of mankind. In the wake of Uppsala several new programmes were added to the WCC like the programmes to combat Racism, the commission on the churches’ participation in development, the Christian Medical Commission, Dialogue with the people of Living Faiths and Ideologies, and the sub unit on Education Unit, Justice and service, became from 1971 onwards the largest unit in the Council.

9.5 Fifth assembly

At Nairobi, Kenya, 23 November to 10 December 1975; 676 delegates from 285 member churches participated and discussed on the theme “Jesus Christ Frees and Unites”. The assembly section titles echo concerns of turbulent decade:  (1) Confessing Christ today, (2) what unity requires, (3) seeing community, (4) education for liberation and community, (5) structures of injustice and struggles for liberation, (6) human development.

Nairobi has been described as an assembly of consolidation, providing theological understanding for much that surfaced in Uppsala. It declared that faith in the triune God and socio-political engagement, active participation in changing economic and social structures belong together and condition one another. A continuous discussions on interfaith dialogue,[17] debate on evangelism a related spirituality to involvement. Science and technology, ecology and human survival, the role of women in the church and society received new emphasis. The section asked the churches to respond to the three agreed statements on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, compiled by the commission on Faith and Order.

9.6 Sixth assembly

At Vancouver, Canada, 24, July to 10 August 1983; 847 delegates, from 301 member churches “Jesus Christ – the life of the World”; and carried out its work in the following issue groups: (1) Witnessing in a divided world, (2) taking steps to unity, (3) moving towards participation, (4) healing and sharing life in community, (5) confronting threats to peace and survival, (6) struggling for justice and human dignity, (7) learning in community, (8) communicating credibly.

Churches were requested to respond officially to the BEM document before the end of 1986. The assembly received the fifth report of the WCC-RCC joint working group, with an outline of future work. Evangelism and Christian education were put on wide attention in the contexts of culture, worship, the poor, Children and religious pluralism. Emphasized on mutual commitment to Justice, peace and the integrity of all creation. A Christian resistance to racism, sexism, caste oppression, economic exploitation, militarism, violations of human rights, and the misuse of science and technology.

9.7 Seventh assembly

At Canberra, Australia, 7 to 20 February 1991; 842 delegates, from 317 member churches, the theme is “Come, Holy Spirit- Renew the whole Creation”.  It was the first time a theme had explicitly invoked the third person of the Trinity, and it did so in the context of the physical universe. Sections were organized under four sub-themes: (1) Giver of life-sustain your creation, (2) Spirit of truth-set us free, (3) Spirit of unity-reconcile your people, (4) Holy Spirit-transform and sanctify us.

The assembly took place within the larger context of the Gulf War, which had only recently begun. Discussion on a statement on war revealed deep differences of opinion over the justifiability of war, as well as differences between local and global concerns. In addition to this, discussions about worship and the ordained ministry revealed deep differences of opinions about their significance and their place in WCC activities. A statement prepared by the Orthodox delegates insisted that the WCC’s principle task is to assist in the restoration of the unity of the churches and proposed that Faith and Order be given greater prominence in the council's agenda. This reflected the grave concern of some that the council had deviated from its fundamental vocation to serve the goal of unity. As a result of the activities of the Faith and Order Commission, the assembly did produce an important statement on “The Unity of the Church as Koinonia: Gift and Calling.” This statement builds upon the New Delhi and Nairobi Statements, and further refined the vision of the visible unity of the churches.

9.8 Eighth assembly

The Eighth Assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe, marked the 50th anniversary of the World Council of Churches. Meeting from December 3 through December 14, 1998, the assembly gathered 966 delegates from 336 member churches. The theme is “Turn to God- Rejoice in Hope”.

The assembly took place at a time when the World Council was facing serious financial difficulties, leading to the elimination of staff members and to the reorganization of programmatic concerns in the period between 1996 and 1999. This was a painful development that led to deeper questions about the true meaning and purpose of the council. In addition, there was a growing concern about the coherence and integrity of the various activities of the council. Moreover, these programmatic activities did not always have the support of member churches. This fact led to alienation between the World Council and many of the member churches.

Representatives from Orthodox Churches, as well as others, had raised serious questions about the ethos and direction of the World Council in the period between Canberra and the Eighth Assembly. Initially, the leadership of the council tended to diminish the significance of these concerns. However, in the period before the assembly, the Orthodox Church of Georgia and the Orthodox Church of Bulgaria withdrew from membership. On the eve of the assembly, many feared that the Orthodox delegates would not fully participate and that other Orthodox Churches, notably the Church of Russia, would formally withdraw from the council. With these facts dominating the deliberations, the assembly participants examined the issues facing the churches and nations of Africa, prepared a new statement on “Human Rights,” and marked the conclusion of the “Ecumenical Decade: Churches in Solidarity with Women.”[18]

The assembly gave importance to two interrelated dimensions. It looked back on its life and work over the past five decades and called for repentance or metanoia. To move forward with hope, renewed strength and joy. Konard Raiser says, it was a new century and a new period in the life of the WCC, to recommit themselves to the ecumenical vision. The assembly stood by the side of the victims of injustice and sought life in its fullness. It vowed to set the captives free and to maintain the unity of human beings and the entire inhabited world.[19]

9.9 Ninth assembly

The Ninth Assembly of the World Council of Churches (WCC) brought 700 delegates from 348 Churches at Porto Alegre, Brazil in 2006 for discussion and worships on the theme “God, in your grace, transform the world.” Plenary sessions addressed topics such as economic justice, religious plurality, and Christian unity, while other elements of the assembly fostered discussion on ecumenism in the twenty-first century and the future of the WCC, Orthodox participation in the WCC, and the challenges and opportunities of interreligious dialogue. The assembly also marked the organization's first large-scale use of a consensus-based model of decision-making, a move reflected in the revised constitution adopted during the event. Increased youth participation, especially in leadership roles, was another new element of the assembly. In official business the assembly voted to reduce the WCC's programmatic focus in order to be more effective with reduced resources, and delegates passed resolutions on a variety of international issues, including terrorism and reform.[20]

9.10 Tenth assembly

The 10th Assembly of the World Council of Churches (WCC), held in Busan, Republic of Korea in 2013. The theme of the Busan assembly, “God of life, lead us to justice and peace,” is a prayer that is very appropriate in our world today. The six thematic plenaries of the assembly were (1) God of life, lead us to justice and peace; (2) Asia plenary: Living together in God’s justice and peace; (3) Mission: A call to life-giving witness; (4) Unity in Christ: The journey of the fellowship; (5) God of life lead us to do justice in today’s world; (6) God of life lead us to build peace in today’s world.

This assembly highlighted the significance of peace; how peace can be achieved in communities, societies and nations; what peace means to communities and churches in a world marred with conflicts, violence and consumerism. The statement titled On the Way of Just Peace affirms that Peace constitutes a pattern of life that reflects human participation in God’s love and care for the world and all God’s creation. With this affirmation it recommends concrete actions and invokes commitment to share God’s love for the world by seeking peace and protecting life. The assembly has the mandate to set the future agenda of the council, to elect governance officials and to speak with a public voice on behalf of the churches. It is also a unique moment for the whole fellowship of member churches to come together in prayer and celebration.[21]

10. Programs of WCC

All activities of the WCC are rooted in a threefold vision for transformation of the church and world. This vision is to live out Christian unity more fully, live as churches being neighbors to all while addressing threats to the human community and encouraging churches to take greater care of creation through protection of the earth and its people.

Today the WCC focuses its work in six program areas:

Ø  The WCC and the Ecumenical Movement in the 21^st  century

 Projects and activities in this programmatic area include a. Ecumenical vision of the WCC; b. Youth in the ecumenical movement c. Women in Church and Society.

Ø  Unity, Mission, Evangelism and Spirituality

Projects and activities include -a. Spirituality and Worship in Ecumenical context; b. Ecumenical Perspectives on Mission and Unity; c. Towards Just and Inclusive Communities.

Ø  Public Witness: Addressing Power, Affirming Peace

Projects and activities include a. Accompanying Churches in Situations of Conflict; b. Human rights; c. Promoting Just Peace.

Ø  Justice,  Diakonia and Responsibility for Creation

Projects and activities include a. Health and Healing; b. Poverty, Wealth and Ecology; c. Ecumenical Water Network, d. Care for creation and Climate Justice; e. The WCC and Eco- justice; f. Ecumenical HIV and AIDS initiative in Africa, g. Scholarships.

Ø  Education and Ecumenical Formation

Projects and activities include a. Ecumenical Theological Education; b. The Ecumenical Institute.

Ø  Inter-Religious Dialogue and Cooperation

11. Regional conferences

The regional ecumenism in 1960 in the southern hemisphere was partly a response to the political needs of the time. Churches in the third world were greatly affected by the geopolitical contexts. The principal aims of these regional councils are to help member churches promote Christian unity, shape a common response to socio-political and ethical issues of regional concern and serve as a bridge between churches of the region and global organizations.

The origin of Christian conference of Asia (CCA) and Middle East Council of Churches (MECC) go back to 1921 and 1929. The genesis and formation of other regional councils coincide with the development of the WCC. Except the Conference of European Churches (CEC) formed in 1959 all other Regional Ecumenical Organizations came into being between 1963 and 1982, a period which WCC acquired more membership of churches from Africa, Asia and Latin America, Orthodox churches of central and Eastern Europe.[22] The All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC) in 1963, Pacific Conference of Churches (PCC) in 1966, Caribbean Conference of Churches (CCC) in1973 are some of the regional ecumenical organizations. Regional councils exist and operate in all major geopolitical areas of the globe. National Council of the Churches of United States of America (NCCUSA), Canadian Council of Churches (CCC) is few in North America.

Asian Christian because of new ecclesial realities formed the East Asia Christian Conference (EACC) in 1959 which in 1973 became the Christian Conference of Asia. In the middle East a similar organization emerged The Near East Council of Churches in 1929, where Anglican and Protestant churches and mission agencies was transformed into Middle East Council of Churches (MECC) in 1974. It was fully representing the regional churches and predominated by orthodox churches. Regional councils have their own characteristics and differ considerably in terms of history, context, membership, structure and decision making process. The Roman Catholic Church (RCC) enjoys membership in three regional ecumenical organizations like the Caribbean, The pacific and the Middle East. Regional Ecumenical Organizations (REO) share with WCC the affirmation that they are a fellowship of churches which confess the Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior according to scriptures and therefore see to fulfill together their common calling to the glory of the one God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.

WCC foster relationships with regional and national councils by creating a secretariat on relationship with WCC and NCC and other Christian councils. The central committee of WCC in 1971 recognized REOs as “essential partners in the ecumenical enterprise”, given right to attend assemblies and central committee meetings through delegates or advisors. At all levels the priority of WCC must be in fostering ecumenical relationships between churches, communities, groups and ecumenical organizations. The impact was through dialogue between REO and WCC. WCC acknowledges the fact that regions set their own priorities which often cannot easily be fitted into global network, and admitted inter-regional cooperation without the involvement of WCC.

For a wider ecumenism the central committee adopted a policy statement towards a common understanding and vision of the WCC. The relationship with REO became the prime discussion of the eight assembly. It point for coordination were no longer questioned; “The challenge is to move to a common ecumenical agenda which will not only require coordination but steps towards an integration of ecumenical structures”.[23] 

12. Growth of the National Christian councils

In 1910 there were two National Christian councils, 1928 at Jerusalem meeting there were twenty three and it increased to twenty six in the Madras conference in1938. The progressive growth in the number of such councils brought them in the gatherings of the International Missionary council. These councils of churches and missionary societies and the national or regional missionary agencies, now existed in every continent. NCC owed the origin to the initiative of IMC which form the important and integral part of the ecumenical movement. The history of National Council of Churches in India comes under three phases. The first phase is the National Missionary Council (1914-1923), the second phase is the National Christian Council (1923- 1979), the third phase is the National Council of Churches in India (1979- present).

13. Conclusion

WCC is not a church but it is an organization where churches come together under a common faith. The structure and agenda of WCC changes as its member churches got involved. It has close relation with national and regional councils. Each of the assemblies has its own theme and there will be discussion and decisions on that theme. The issues will contemporary and a pressing need to the world. More number of churches are becoming members in this organization and so the structure and agendas are changing every now and then.  

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[1] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1990), 18.

[2] Thomas E Fitzgerald, The Ecumenical Movement: An Introductory History (London: Westport, 2004), 105.

[3] O.L Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical Movement and Introduction.(Bangalore: BTESSC, 2014), 128.

[4] Tom Stransy, “World Council of Churches,” Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement, edited by Nicholas Lossy (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1991), 1083.

[5] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches…, 23.

[6] Thomas E Fitzgerald, The Ecumenical Movement: An Introductory History…, 107.

[7] Tom Stransy, “World Council of Churches,” Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement, edited by Nicholas Lossy…, 1083.

[8] W A Visser’t Hooft, The Genesis of the World Council of Churches (Geneva: WCC, 1982), 49.

[9] Tom Stransy, “World Council of Churches,” Dictionary of the Ecumenical Movement, edited by Nicholas Lossy.., 1084.

[10] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches…, 4.

[11] Jeffrey Gros, Introduction to Ecumenism (New York: Paulist Press, 1998), 133.

[12] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches.., 6.

[13] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches.., 141.

[14] Marlin Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council of Churches.., 144.

[15] Thomas E Fitzgerald, The Ecumenical Movement: An Introductory History.., 114.

[16] O.L Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical Movement and Introduction…, 136.

[17] Poulose Mor Gregorious, On Ecumenism (Delhi: ISPCK, 2006), 115

[18] Thomas E Fitzgerald, The Ecumenical Movement: An Introductory History.., 116.

[19] O.L Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical Movement and Introduction…, 140

[20] https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/events/ninth-assembly-of-the-world-council-of-churches. Accessed on 04-09 2016 2.20 PM

[21] https://www.oikoumene.org/en/press-centre/events/10th-assembly-of-the-world-council-of-churches. Accessed on 30/11/2017 2.45 PM

[22] George Tsetsis, “The significance of Regional Ecumenism,” A history of the Ecumenical Movement Volume 3 1968-2000, edited by John Briggs, Mercy Amba Oduyoye and Georges Tsetsis (Geneva: WCC, 2004), 461.

[23] George Tsetsis, “The significance of Regional Ecumenism,” A history of the Ecumenical Movement Volume 3 1968-2000, edited by John Briggs, Mercy Amba Oduyoye and Georges Tsetsis.., 462- 466.