Sources and the question of authority in Christian Theology

 

Sources and the question of authority in Christian Theology

1. Introduction

This paper will explore the basic insights of Epistemology, Theology and Christian Theology. Particularly, Formative factors of Christian theology, Pramanas as the authoritative sources for Indian Christian Theology followed by the Role of Scripture and authority in Theology and Church with a small note on Reason and Revelation. Emerging strands of theologies and their epistemology is also discussed.

1.1. Epistemology

Epistemology is a branch which is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It can also be interpreted as the “theory of knowledge”. It deals with the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge. There are two strands of the“theory of knowledge” according to the Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology: Rationalist and the Empiricist.[1] Rationalist strand talks about stressing the reasoning capacity of the human beings to find out and understand the basic truths about humans and the universe (and God). The Empiricist strand on the other hand talks about sense being the foundation of knowledge. The definition of Epistemology takes different directions depending on the subject in which it is mentioned. “Theological Epistemology explores the problems about knowing, believing, doubting, proving, about the probable and the improbable.”[2] Sense plays an important role in it. It also talks about the origin, development and authority of the doctrines and various sources that contribute to the development of a particular subject. Epistemology usually raises questions about various issues and the questions raised cannot have a definite answer. We can only come to an agreement by raising theological questions and trying to agree upon certain things.

1.2. Theology

The word ‘Theology’ is derived from Greek language ‘theos’ meaning god and ‘logos’ meaning word. It can be therefore described as ‘words about god’ or ‘god-talk’. The word ‘logos’ can be understood as not just the word but the innate meaning of the word thus the meaning of ‘Theology’ can be ‘speaking and thinking about god’ which is sometimes referred to  as the science of theology.[3]

 “Theology is the continuing service to God’s revelation, performed by specific men (people), in the form of conceptual thinking in a specific here and now.”[4] According to the definition of Gogarten, “Theology is the critical, methodological thinking of the theologian which he does when he (one) does when he (one) speaks on the basis of the revelation of God.”[5] Bultmann defines theology as “the conceptual presentation of the existence of man (person) as an existence determined by God.”[6]

Theology can seldom satisfy the natural requirement and expectations of human thought for a comprehensive completeness. Dogmatics, as a theological discipline is the Church’s scientific self-examination of its affirmations about God. The Church thus constructs theology in its own typical sense by undergoing itself to self-examination.[7]

1.3. Christian Theology

Christian theology can be understood as intellectual reflection on the act, content, and

implication of Christian faith. It can also be understood as “the reflection upon the God whom Christians worship and adore.”[8] Alister E. McGrath in the preface to his book Theology: The Basics writes that Christian theology talks about God in a Christian way. He mentions that it can be seen as the process of reflecting on the Bible and putting together the message, themes and the ideas conveyed in it. He also says that Christian Theology is exploring the Creeds, their attachment to the Bible and finding out its impact on Christian living and thinking. According to Karl Rahner, “Theology is the science of faith which means theology is also understood in scientific discipline. It is the conscious and methodological explanation and explication of the divine revelation received in faith”[9]Christian theology in a way implies participation in religious faith. It is rooted in faith and also aims at expression in a verbal form. It is continuous with faith because it participates and talks on the grounds of faith and yet it is different from faith. Faith is just a starting point of Christian theology.

1.4. Theological Epistemologies in Indian Context:

Since the emergence of theology, Christian Theology in particular, it was the western

thought which was prevalent in India. Christianity was followed according to the western culture and western traditions. The prayers the sacraments and songs are all adopted from their culture. Some of the churches follow the same traditions even now. But After the involvement of Brahminical Literature especially the Vedas in Indian Theology, the structure of it slowly started to change.

 

2. Formative Factors of Christian Theology:

The formative factors of Christian Theology can be divided into foundations, sources and resources of theology. The formative factors are

 

2.1. Scripture: Scripture is considered to be the primary authoritative source of Christian Theology. The Church looks at Scripture as the record of God’s revelation and as the faith experience of the Israelites, and accepts it as the normative sources of faith. According to few doctrines and teachings, Scripture is needed to nurture and reform the Church. It is also important to remember that Christianity is a religion which is constructed and based on history and Scripture is the source that speaks of that history. In this sense scripture becomes a very important source for Christian theology. “Scripture contains a unique origin – a deposit whose special qualities are due to its inspired origins, and which is to be handed down through the ages by an authoritative teaching tradition.”[10]

Scripture is authoritative because it was considered as the inspired word of God. Philo of Alexandria regarded scripture as a fully inspired writing, and regarded that God used authors of scriptural books as passive instruments for communicating the divine will. Bur for Roman Catholics, the authority of Scripture is not much important than the authority of church. The interpretation of the Scripture is the area which is problematic and controversial. To call certain texts Scripture is that they are authoritative for the common life of Church.[11]

 

2.2. Tradition: Tradition literally means ‘Handing Over’ derived from the Latin word ‘Traditio’. It can either mean the action of passing teaching to the other or the body of teachings passed. Tradition can be understood as process and as well as a body of teaching. Tradition deals with the process of passing something from one age to the other and also with something that is already passed on.

David H. Kelsey says that “it is a process that embraces both the Church’s use of scripture and the presence of God which, in dialectical inter-relationship, are together essential to the church’s self Identity.”[12]Alister E. McGrath in his book Christian Theology; An Introduction says that “Tradition is not merely something that is handed down but an active process of reflection by which theological or spiritual insights are valued, assured and transmitted from one generation to another.”[13] It refers to theological reflection and the process of handing on the church way of life and beliefs from one generation to the other. It is an active process by which theological and spiritual insights are valued, assessed and transmitted.

 

2.3. Experience: Experience is an important authoritative source of Theology. Christian theology is concerned with human experience which is common to humanity. Theological reflection makes use of resources derived from experiences. According to Martin Luther’s “Theology of Cross”, experience is of vital importance to theology; without experience theology is impoverished deficient, an empty shell waiting to be filled. Yet experience cannot be regarded as a reliable theological resource; it must be interpreted and corrected by theology.[14] Experiences also contribute to the understanding of our faith. Schleiermacher says that “the form of experience varies from individual to individual and from one community to another. Theology aims to interpret the experience of the individuals.” Christian theology provides an interpretive framework within which human experience may be interpreted. [15] McGrath calls experience as “An accumulated body of knowledge, arising through first – hand encounter with life.”[16]

 

3. Pramanas as the Authoritative Sources for Indian Christian Theology

Pramanas are considered to be the important sources of Indian Theology. A.J. Appasamy identified Pramanas as the authoritative sources for Indian Christian Theology. He affirms that for him the bible was the primary standard or pramana^[17]. He affirms the primary task of Christian theology in India today is to settle the source of authority. He considered four sources as authoritative and uses the four traditional standards or Pramanas of Hinduism.^[18]

3.1. Sruti (Scripture): In general the word sruti literally means hearing and in Hindu usage refers to the Vedas but etymological1ly it means the word of God. It is regarded as the inspiration for the word of God and the source for the rishis or seers whom to heard directly from God. Derivatively, it can be used as the revelation refers to the exclusively to those of scriptures which are divinely inspired rather than simply ‘remembered’ by human. In Indian Theology the Vedas are considered as the word of God. When it comes to Indian Christian Theology it is the Scripture that becomes the Word of God. According to Appasamy, The Bible (Gospels, New Testament and the Old Testament) are the authorities for the Christian Scriptures.^[19]

For him the primary revelation was Christo-centric thought found in the Gospels and the interpretation offered by Jesus and his followers especially St. Paul and St. John us also fundamental. The Old Testament also is of value for giving the background in which the historical incarnation took place.  Christ is the centre of Scripture and it is in the light of both Old Testament and New Testament and because of all scripture bears witness to him the Bible is the primary rule of faith or Parmanas.

3.2. Yukti (Reason) or Anumana: The word yukti literally means argument, inference or reason. Appasamy’s understanding of yukti in context of the pramanas is that every theological belief served from scripture should be tested by reason. This is to find out the answers for the logical examination.  He also says that reason is an important factor while studying scripture and religion. Whatever we learn from it should undergo a test of reason but he says that Yukti has its own limitations and should be supplemented by Anubhava.^[20]

3.3. Anubhava (Experience) or Pratyaksa: One can accept a belief as our own only when he/she has proved it true in our own experience either spiritual or personal as one which must be applied to all theological statements. Anubhava is also the direct religious experience that gives us the true knowledge about God.^[21]

3.4. Sabha (The Church): Sabha means Holy Place, temple or Church. It is this place that teaches us the early teachings about God and things related to God. Appasamy feels that without recognition of God’s presence in the Church, Christian thought and experience are incomplete. God reveals self not merely to an individual but to the Church.^[22] The authoritative teaching of the Church gives place to scripture and church dogmatics and authority over the tendencies of individuals to follow their own ideas. 

4. Scripture as the Source of Christianity

When we think about Scripture as the source of Christianity, it is often described as the religion of book.  A few years ago, “German theologian Gerhard Ebeling wrote that ‘church history is the history of the exposition of scripture.’ He reminded us that the collection of writings which Christians call the Holy Bible is an integral element in the life of the Church and in Christian theology as well.”[23]  Theologians sometimes accuse one another of underestimating or overestimating the value of Scripture, mistaking its meaning, or failing to apply it rightly.  These disputes, however, are usually domestic quarrels; no serious theologian denies that Scripture is vitally important in the household of faith.

 

 

4.1. Role of Scripture in Theology

The Christian biblical canon that is known to us today (with Hebrew Scripture and New Testament writings) is a legacy of the ancient church.  It emerged from a consensus formed over several centuries and it reflects the impact these books had on church life.  In a strictly historical sense, then, the Bible and the church belong together, and theologians whose faith seeks understanding must return to the witness of the Scriptures.  The significance of the Bible for theology, however, cannot be reduced to its value as a historical record.  Christians seek to hear through these writings a message from God – the Word of God.  The Scriptures proclaim the Word that called forth the faith of Israel and the faith of the earliest Christians.  That word of God is still heard today by the reading of the Scripture in the Church.  It is not surprising that these writings have a special status in the church and exert a special force-a canonical force-on theological thinking.  They contain resources essential for theologians whose aim is to understand the meaning of the faith. “For many Protestants especially, a phrase for the Reformation expresses their abiding conviction: the Bible is Norma normans sed non normata, the norm that judges every other norm but is not itself judged by any other.”[24]

The use of Holy Scripture in theology has always been a hot button issue in theology: its authority, inspiration, unity and diversity, and reliability in terms of history and faith have been particular areas of concern.  Each church has its own viewpoint on these matters, and there is considerable grass roots diversity as well.  Each of us is well advised to consider where we will stand on these questions.  However, we should not stop at stating our beliefs about the Bible.  How we make use of the Bible’s resources in actual practice is another important question.  David Kelsey, in The Use of Scripture in Recent Theology, “Points to four distinct ways in which modern theologians draw biblical texts into their theological reflections.  While the authority of Scripture is affirmed in all four cases, the Word of God heard through the words of the Bible is identified in different ways: (1) as propositions about divine truth, (2) symbolic expressions of faith experiences, (3) recitals of God’s identity, or (4) invitations to existential possibilities for new life.”[25]

4.2. Role of Scripture and authority in Church

The remarks about the concepts “scripture,” “church,” and “tradition” bring out another point about the use of scripture in expressions such as this scripture is authoritative for the life of the Christian church and this scripture is authoritative for Christian theology.  When it is judged as these texts are authoritative for the life of the Christian church, the judgment is very logical, which means, these texts are Christian scripture. The term ‘Authoritative’ is part of the meaning of scripture and it is not a dependent judgment about the scripture.  And then about the judgment, these texts are authoritative for theology, it is also logical because these texts are authoritative for the life of the church.  The texts’ authority for theology is “logically grounded in and dependent on their authority for the life of the church generally. But since, concretely speaking, the life of the church taken as some sort of organic whole is ‘tradition,’ that means that the texts’ authority for theology is dependent on their being authority for ‘tradition.’”[26]

 

4.3. Recognizing the Ultimate Authority of Scriptures without Neglecting the Other Faiths

Do we need to add anything that has the same authoritative level as the scriptures found in different communities? Is bible presented a different dialogical processes compare to other religious traditions? Israel Selvanayagam wrote in his book Biblical Insights on Inter-faith Dialogue (1995), Firstly, “is that the plurality if ways in which some of the fundamental categories or figures are presented.” Secondly, being preoccupied with all the hermeneutical principles developed in the field of scriptures can be reflected similarities with other interpretations in form of devotional, ethical teachings and mythical stories. Thirdly, in context other faiths we need to expect an opportunity in the process of dialogue to share the core insights of the bible.

5. Revelation and Reason:

Reason is historically conditioned as it is not only in space-time; time-space is in reason. Revelation within its authority can call reason false hope and human arrogance, and resent its intrusion but rationally one is called to dialogue in present day context is a reason hide. Both reason and revelation are integral to the knowing that belongs to Christian faith and theology as well as in related Christian epistemology, revelation has priority that clarifies and illuminates darkness, evokes that the reason does not appear on the scene of human reflection with answers so much as with questions as potentiality for dialogue. In socio cultural circumstances, the relation between reason and revelation becomes highly provocative, so as far as the Christian disciple is concerned.^[27]

6. Emerging Strands of Theologies and their Epistemology:

The above mentioned sources were considered authoritative till a point of time after which the theological thought moved on and started looking at things in a new perspective. Folk songs and Oral stories play an important role in doing theology. They are also the sources of theology since Tradition and Experience have been passed on to them through Folk songs and Oral stories. They become authoritative in the construction of their theology. We can say that during the time of A.P Nirmal the shift took place. People started to think relating themselves to the context they were in and derived sources according to it. Some of them are:

6.1. Dalit Theology:

Dalit Theology basically talks about the oppression or the suppression they face in the society, as their primary source in constructing their theology. They construct their theology from their sufferings and long for liberation. The image of Jesus as savior and liberator is understood as one who brings freedom in their lives from the bondage of Caste discrimination. They apply these experiences to the scriptures and interpret them accordingly. From these experiences their theology emerges and these experiences are authoritative for them.[28]

6.2. Tribal Theology:

Tribal Theology is also based on experience but in a different way. Recognition in the society is the major problem for them. Nirmal Minz says that the sources of tribal theology are the people, their homeland, power and God (gods).[29] He further says that by taking various covenants in the Bible, narrates how God engages with people and creation. For example, Noah’s covenant is between God, Noah and the creation. Tribal theology takes creation also seriously and particularly appropriates the experiences of tribals with the biblical texts and reinterprets the text according to their context.[30]

6.3. Feminist Theology:

For the Feminists it is the subjugation of women by Patriarchal structures. Women don’t want people to look at them as commodities but rather want to be recognized as equals. “Even with all their diversity, Feminist, Womanist and mujerista theologies have one thing in common: they make the liberation of women central to the theological task.”[31]Aruna Gnanadason says that bible has to be re-interpreted from the eyes of women since the Bible is written by male authors and in androcentric approach.[32]

6.4. Transgender Theology:

Transgenders are considered as nothing to be precise. They are the marginalized, suppressed and the oppressed in all possible aspects. Out of this struggle for existence their theology emerges. This becomes the source for their Theology. They want the so called mainline society to recognize them as human beings. They are also made in the image of God and are children of God. Stigmatizing them because they have a different sexual orientation is a human rights violation and sin.[33]

6.5. Ecological Theology:

Ecological theology talks about Human Being as a part of the God made Ecology and not a prime in it. This theology doesn’t accept Humans being the dominant factor in this world and trying to control everything. It says that Humans are equal among the rest of the things created by God in this World. This becomes the source of their Theology.[34]

7. Personal Reflection:

Looking into various aspects that deal with the authority and role of sources in doing theology one may raise a question, “What source is authoritative?” Western thought regarded Scripture, Tradition, Reason and Experience as the major authoritative factors of theology. When we talk about Christian theology especially Indian Christian theology, we find that most of us follow the Western Thought in our theological interpretations. All of our Sacraments, Liturgies and other elements of our faith are influenced by the western thought and is followed according to the norms laid at that time. The Sources we are talking were formed long time ago. The people who compiled it together may or may not have different ways of thinking. They might have been influenced by their Political, Cultural and Religious conditions. They might have had their own context in mind and would have compiled it. Then again the same question rises, “How authentic and appropriate are these to our present context?” is a question that we need to ponder upon. This doesn’t mean that we totally reject all these sources. I also realized that behind each text there is a story of socio-cultural conditioned aspect. When the text is not free from the human conditioning, how can it be authoritative? This means that we should keep in mind the above mentioned things while interpreting the sources and should understand them in an appropriate  way. Looking into the Indian Christian Theology and its sources, I realized that it was only recently that I came to know about the sources, The Pramanas, which are identified by A.J. Appasamy. Experience as an authoritative source, I think, has more valid arguments than the rest. I agree to the fact that we cannot theologize without understanding the present situation. The voices of Dalits, Tribals, Sexual Minorities, Feminists/womanists and the Marginalized have made it clear that only through experience can one understand the true sense of Theology. If we are unable to go through their experiences, we should at least understand what they are undergoing and have to respond in an appropriate way. I believe that this is the true sense of doing Theology. We must be able to relate to their experiences of pain and suffering and thereby develop a theology which can pave way for equality and justice, and the goodness of life that can be enhanced, encouraged and enlightened.

8. Conclusion and Evaluation

Re-thinking of Scripture as the source and the valuable force behind Christian Theology, it is very well advocated that Scripture is the message from God.  It is not only the message but also the living source for the faith community.  I am really inspired to get to know that Bible is not just ‘The Book’ or ‘Collection of Books’ but it is an anthology of books written over many centuries, each reflecting its own distinctive origin.  Drawing the resources of scripture in the course of theological reflection it calls us to decide whether the texts relate to the whole or the contemporary multi-religious context.  If scripture does not help us to relate ourselves with the people around us in good relationship, we lose our relativity.  However, Scripture is the life-giving source for all living beings, no matter what religion we belong to.

After looking into and understanding Epistemology, theology, role of scripture and authority in Christian theology, there should be improvisation of our theological articulations. Since there are various theologies and ideologies that have emerged (Dalit theology, Tribal Theology, Feminist Theology, Transgender theology, Ecological theology) and are always emerging, we should enter into a dialogue with all of them so that we can enrich our faith and theology. We should inculcate the quality of openness to correct ourselves and also be ready to accept the good from other theologies. This way we can equip ourselves and our theological formulations.

 

---

[1] Alan Richardson and John Bowden, ed., The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1983), 182.

[2] Alan Richardson, ed., A dictionary of Christian Theology(London:SCM Press Ltd,1997),112.

[3] John Stacy, Groundwork of Theology, (London: Epworth Press, 1977), 37.

[4] Karl Barth, Theology and Church, (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1962), 289.

[5] Ibid., 286.

[6] Ibid., 289.

[7] Hellmut Gollwitzer, Karl Barth Church Dogmatics, A Selection with Introduction, (Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1961), 82-84.

[8] Alister E. Mcgrath, Christian Theology; An Introduction (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1994), 117.

[9] Alister E. Mcgrath, Christian Theology; An Introduction (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1994), 119.

[10] Peter C. Hodgson and Robert H. King, Christian Theology: An Introduction to its tradition and tasks (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 62.

[11] David H. Kelsey, The Uses of Scripture in recent Theology (London: SCM Press Ltd, 1975), 98.

[12] Ibid., 95.

[13] Alister E. Mcgrath, Christian Theology; An Introduction (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1994), 188.

[14] Alister E. Mcgrath, Christian Theology; An Introduction (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1994), 192- 195.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ibid.                                                                                                            

[17] Boyd, Robin, Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 1989): 96.

[18] Ibid., 135-137; 228-230.

[19] A.J. Appasamy, What Shall We Believe? A study of the Christian Pramanas(Bangalore: C.L.S Press, 1971),13.

[20] A.J. Appasamy, What Shall We Believe? A study of the Christian Pramanas(Bangalore: C.L.S Press, 1971),, 14-15.

[21] Ibid., 15-16.

[22] Ibid., 16-17.

[23] Howard W. Stone and James O. Duke, How to think theologically (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), 44.

[24]Howard W. Stone and James O. Duke, How to think theologically (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996),, 45.

[25] Howard W. Stone and James O. Duke, How to think theologically (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), 45, 46.

[26] David H. Kelsey, The Uses of Scripture in Recent Theology (London: SCM Press, 1975), 97.

[27] Douglas John Hall, Thinking the Faith: Christian Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), 417- 426.

[28] Kondasingu Jesurathnam, Dalit Liberative Hermeneutics: Indian Christian Interpretation of Psalm 22, (Delhi: ISPCK, 2010), 161.

[29] NirmalMinz, “A Theological Interpretation of the Tribal Reality in India”, Reading in Indian Christian Theology, Vol. 1, ISPCK Study Guide 29, Edited by R. S. Sugritharajah and Cecil Hargreaves, (Delhi: ISPCK, 1993), 47.

[30] NirmalMinz, “A Theological Interpretation of the Tribal Reality in India”, Reading in Indian Christian Theology, Vol. 1, ISPCK Study Guide 29, Edited by R. S. Sugritharajah and Cecil Hargreaves, (Delhi: ISPCK, 1993), 48.

[31] Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Cambridge companion to Postmodern Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 109.

[32] ArunaGnanadason, “Feminist Theology: An Indian Perspective”, Reading in Indian Christian Theology, Vol. 1, ISPCK Study Guide 29, Edited by R. S. Sugritharajah and Cecil Hargreaves, (Delhi: ISPCK, 1993), 64.

[33] James B. Nelson, Embodiment: An Approach to Sexuality and Christian Theology (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1978), 247.

[34] R. L. Sarkar, The Bible, Ecology and Environment (Delhi: ISPCK, 2000), 280.