1. Introduction
Monasticism
was evolved into existence in second half of the third century. Monks and
Monasticism occupies a conspicuous place in the history of the Church. The
history of Christian monasticism arguably began as the early Christians began
moving to the desert with a goal of growing closer to God, thus following the
example of Christ, when he fasted for forty days in the wilderness of Judea.
Monasticism is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits
in order to fully devote one’s life to spiritual work. Those pursuing a
monastic life are usually called monks or brethren if they are male, and nuns
or sisters if female. Both monks and nuns may also be called monastic.
The
word monasticism derived from the Greek word Monos meaning alone, solitary etc…[1] As
we use it, the term is applied to all those who live apart from the world,
whether as solitaries or in communities. Monasticism literally means the act of
‘dwelling alone’; it has come to denote the mode of life concerning persons
living in seclusion from the world who normally take religious vows and subject
themselves to fixed rule as monks, friars, nuns, or in general, religious.
Monasticism has been practiced in almost all leading religious being especially
widespread in Asia among the Brahmins, Buddhists, Muslim, and among the sage of
ancient Egypt and the East Mediterranean lands. The Jews too had two monastic
sects like Essenes and the Therapentae.
2. Background of Christian
Monasticism
2.1
Philosophical Influences
Christian monasticism arises from the moral conflict
between the spirit and the flesh. Some peoples thought that flesh was evil and
the origin of monasticism must be sought in the need, often felt by
spiritually-minded men, of withdrawing from the world, from its temptations and
its transitory pleasures to a life of solitude, prayer, and religious
contemplation. Joined to this feeling has been the conviction that the soul may
be purified by subduing the desires and passions of the body.[2]
The heathen dualism exerted a powerful influence on the asceticism and its view
of the world, particularly upon anchoretism and monasticism in the East.
2.2 Some Scripture Seem to Support
the Idea of Separation from the World
Paul’s
apparent advocacy of the celibate life in 1 Cor.7, Acts 4:32-37 is a case in
point. The early church fathers such as Origen, Cyprian, Terullian and Jerome
urged celibacy as the correct interpretation of such Scriptures.[3]
The teachings of Alexandrian school led the people to make a comparison with
their life. In theology of Clement of Alexandria and Origen, the head of the
Alexandrian catechetical school, imitation that interested combination of
asceticism and mysticism which was to become the intellectual basis for later
monasticism.
2.3 Enlightenment
Early
Christians had a custom of going out into the desert to seek enlightenment,
particularly when confronted with some important decision or when dissatisfied
with life in general. Moses, Elijah, Jesus, as well as the entire Israelites
people, among many others, retreated into the desert and founded their life’s
mission there. This context also made awareness to the people for joining in
monasticism.
2.4 Socio-religious situations
Christians
for long had honoured the practices of voluntary poverty, chastity and fasting.
Following the conversion of Emperor Constantine and state patronization of
Church, an overwhelming majority of the citizens of the Roman Empire embraced
Christianity. With the advancement of mass conversion from varied motives,
discipline of the Church got relaxed. Added to this was the lowering of
spiritual life due to persistent religious controversies within the Church.[4]
This resulted in widening gap between the ideal and the performance of average
Christians. Along with these, there was also counter movement to shift back to
the original ideals of Christian self- giving through complete surrender to God
and commitment to His call and one’s neighbour. Monasticism, in an organised
way, was the outcome of counter movement.
2.5 Certain Psychological Tendencies
Strengthened the Desire for a Monastic life
In
period of crisis there is always a tendency to retreat from the harsh realities
about one. The late second and third centuries saw the beginning of civil
disorder that was to become so prevalent in the later history of the empire.
Many left society for the monastery as a means of escape from harsh reality and
the moral contamination of the times. With the union of church and state the
possibility of martyrdom was lessened, but those who desired martyrdom as a
pledge of their faith could find a psychological substitute in the ascetic
practices of monasticism.[5]
Monasticism also offered a more individualistic approach to god and salvation
than the formal corporate worship of the times.
2.6 The Persecutions
Persecution
is main cause for the rise of Christian monasticism. The persecutions had
driven many into the deserts where they discovered it possible to practice
piety unhampered by the temptations of life in a pagan environment. The Decian
persecution about the year 250 AD led many people to underwent ascetic life and
flee to the wilderness to escape from the danger and stayed there sometimes.
But some of them settled there permanently to continue a holy life
2.7 The increasing Number of
Barbarians into the Church
The
increasing number of barbarians crowding into the church brought many semipagan
practices within the church, and puritanical soul’s revolt against them.[6]
The increasing moral deterioration, especially in the upper classes in Roman
society, caused many to despair of social reform. Monasticism became a haven
for those in revolt against the growing decadence of the times.
3. Different Phases of Monasticism
3.1 Asceticism
Asceticism
had a considerable impact on early Church. It was held with high esteem.
Ascetic life as yet not organized nor separated from the Church. It came down
from the ante-Nicean age. Even pagans were highly impressed of the high moral
life of ascetics.
3.2 Eremitism
The
word monk originally did not mean, as it generally assumed, a hermit or
solitary. In this type, hermits stay as individuals and they were independent
of one another. The earliest known proponent of this group is Paul of Thebes.
He went into desert during the time of Dacian persecution and started to live
as a hermit.[7]
When in several favoured areas settlements of the hermits grew number, there
occurred the formation of anchorite communities, lose association in which the
hermits gathered around a monk of high repute who was to be their spiritual
advisor and father.
3.3 Coenobitism
This
form is understood as the monasticism in the ordinary sense of the world. In
this group, monks live together under a common roof under a common authority as
a community. Constantly increasing number of monks preferring a common life
replaced the freedom and individualism of anchoritism.[8]
Under such a norm, every member of the community was to adapt himself to
certain regulations. It was in these organized communities monastic system
exerted its greatest influence and made maximum growth.
3.4
Gyrovagues
These monks who spend
their whole lives wandering about through different region and living three or
four days at a time in the cell of different monks. They are always wandering
about and never remain long in one place, and they are governed by their own
appetites and desire. But it is better to pass over in silence than to mention
their manner of life.
4. Principal
Characteristics or Vows of Monasticism
Vows are very common in all the religions and it is a
sacred voluntary promise to dedicate oneself or members of one’s family or
community to have special obligation that goes beyond usual social or religious
requirements. All monks in general take three vows called obedience, chastity,
poverty and in some case an added vow of stability
4.1 Chastity, Poverty
and Obedience
Obedience
is the vow in which the monk dedicates himself to listening to others more than
to self. Vow of chastity is a monastic
and ascetic goal. It is not only an
external celibacy but an inner chastity of thought. The vow of poverty means
holding all things in common within a religious community. In other words, an
individual do not own one single thing. The vow of poverty embraced an
unqualified rejection of all right to acquire or hold individual property, but granted
the privilege of owning property in a mutual capacity.[9]
4.2 Work
During
the fourth century it was an eschatological principle that a monk should live
by the labour of his hands. The work of the monk was three kinds. First, the
manual: the manual labour of the early monks consisted chiefly in the weaving
of mates or the cultivation of the soil. The various arts and crafts had also
their place in monastic activity. Second, intellectual, it consisted chiefly in
the reading and study of sacred scripture and other holy writings. Thirdly,
external work, a number of monasteries received ‘oblates,’ i.e. Christians
consecrated an early age by their parents to the monastic state.[10]
These it was necessary to instruct, so schools were established in the
monasteries. Secular students also attended in this school.
4.3 Prayer and Silence
A
considerable part of monk times was always devoted to prayer. In substance this
prayer consisted in meditation on or recitation of, the Psalter, which was
distributed according to the days of the week or the hours of each day. Silence
was practically absolute and rare were the occasions on which they could
indulge in conversation. They did occasionally visit one another.
4.5 Solitude
Solitude
was interpreted in a more or wide sense. For the hermits living in their caves,
in their tombs or in their pillars solitude was absolute and complete. For the
cenobites it consisted in their separation from the world, in the practice of
silence and in certain restrains.
4.6 Stability
A
certain regions a monk could without any breach of his vows pass from one
monastery to another. The abuse of this custom as seen in the wandering monks
and other consideration as well led to the establishment of stability as a law
of the monastic state, which little by little became general.
5.
Monks from East
5.1 St. Antony (251-
356 A.D)
St.
Antony is called as the father of monks. He was born in a very rich Christian
family in the city of Kaman, Upper Egypt in 251A.D. He practiced very tough
asceticism and worked hard with his own hands and shared everything to the
poor. He lived in caves and forts in the mountains. He lived up to the age of
one hundred and five in good health, even with this life style.[11] Many people were attracted to his
teaching and many began to live in desert and many of them went to him to learn
about the life of prayer.
5.2 Pachomius (290-
346 A.D)
He
was born in Upper Egypt of pagan parents and he was a younger contemporary of
St. Antony. He after brief service as a conscript in the Roman army presented
himself for baptism and immediately took up the life of a hermit under the
supervision of an older ascetic named Palamon.[12]
He established an organized monastic community at the village of Tabbenisi. He
composed the first monastic rule establishing the economic and spiritual basis
for the common life and providing for community government. He made monks
community as to do work like agriculture, tailoring, baking. The productions
were sold to the community people with low profit. He appointed superiors and
deans for taking in charge of the house where the monks stayed. This shows the
military influence of Pachomius and it helped for the growth of the
monastery.
In
Palestine Hilarion was the prime instigator of monasticism, in Judean desert a
major figure was Euthymius, James of Nisibis in Syria, in Asia Minor Eustathius
of Sebaste and Basil of Caesarea, in Constantinople Macedonius, Simon the
Stylite, etc… are the prominent figures.
6. Monks from West
6.1 Benedict of Nursia (480-
550 A.D)
He
became a monk as a young man and thereafter learned the tradition by
associating with monks and reading the monastic literature. He was caught up in
the monastic movement but ended by channeling the stream into new and fruitful
ways. This is evident in the rule which he wrote for monasteries and which is
still used in many monasteries and convents around the world. Also around this
time, Benedict wrote his famous rule for monastic life.[13] Abolition
of private property, Communal meetings of the abbot and the monks (later to be
known as Chapter House), Communal sleeping arrangements (dormitory style), Division
of the day into seven offices: Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, Nones, Vespers,
Compline, Excommunication in degrees, Importance of manual labor, etc…
Athanasius
is traditionally credited with the introduction of monasticism to the west
during one of his periodic exile. Martin of Tours in Gaul, Jerome in Rome, and
John Cassin in southern Gaul are the prominent figures of monasticism in west.
Marcellina, sister of Ambrose, was the first Roman nuns, established monastery
in Milan.
7. Effects of Monasticism
7.1 Positives Effects
Ø The
local monastery often served as the medieval equivalent of a modern experiment
farm in demonstrating better methods of agriculture. The monks cleared the
forests, drained the marshes, made roads, and improved seeds and breeds of
livestock. Nearby farmers often emulated the better techniques that they saw
the monks using. The produce of the monasteries was used for charitable gifts,
and poor benefited from it.[14]
Ø Monastery
schools provided education on the lower levels for those near-by who desired to
learn.
Ø Monks
busied themselves copying precious manuscripts, which were thus preserved for
posterity.
Ø Monks
became the missionaries of the medieval church.
Ø The
monasteries provided a refuge for the outcast of society who was in need of
help.
Ø One
of the main contributions of early and later monasticism to the church was
their enthusiasm to worship;[15]
monks were the main authors of Christian prayer, worship, liturgy, tradition,
etc…
7.2 Negative Effects
Ø The
Church and the world lost the contribution of many able men and women.
Ø Monasticism
produced spiritual pride among the monks and began to treat others something
worthless.
Ø Many
monasteries become very rich and wealth pulled down the discipline. For the
development purpose of monasteries many of the people give lot of contributions
to monasteries, it led to increase the wealth of the monasteries. This resulted
in competition for managerial and administrative roles, which had moved the
focus of inmates from service to rule.[16]
This has affected the growth and enrichment of disciples in various monasteries
while increasing corruption among the administrative level.
Ø Monasticism
was not only a withdrawal from the society but also from civil and military
service of the state, and all public practical activities.
Ø Monasticism
nourished religious fanaticism because they don’t want to compromise with
others on theological controversies.
Monasteries
had a long back history and to play a vital role for the growth of
Christianity. In the third and fourth centuries the true followers rebelled
against the worldliness, which existed in the early Church and they have been
attempted and made great awakening in the society as well as spiritual life of
the early Christians.
8. Emergence of Women’s Order
The
influence of Egyptian monasticism spread rapidly in other parts of the world
and became one of the most important vehicles for cross - cultural spiritual
fertilization among the churches in the world. It also opened a way for new
forms of ministry among women recognizing the need to provide structure, for
those seeking a deeper spiritual life.[17]
8.1 The Abbess
The
position of abbess was the highest to which women could attain. The Abbess not
only ruled a large community of nuns, but also had jurisdiction over vast
territories that often included villages and towns. Whatever credentials an
abbess possessed, the recognition accorded her depended initially on her social
rank but to even greater extent it depended on the local church and political
authorities and of course, on her own charisma and assertiveness. Her interest
became the interest of community.[18]
It education and arts were her priorities, so it was with the nuns under her.
Alternatively; if she was a mystic, it was likely that the entire community
would have a mystical atmosphere.
8.2 The Beguines
Beguines
are Catholic laywomen who lead lives of devotion and quasi-monastic discipline without
taking permanent vows. The beguines are exponents of the vast movement for
religious reform that inspired clerics as well as laymen and women in the late
11th and 12th centuries, when Western Europe witnessed
great social transformation scholarly publications on the beguines claimed that
Lambert the reform-minded priest founded the first beguine communities.[19]
Two type’s beguinages can be distinguished. The first, usually called “house”
or “convent”, was made up of a relatively small group of 5 to 15 beguines
living together in one or two buildings, governed by a single mistress. The
second type was the “court”, a complex of houses convents for communal living,
and service buildings at the edge of the city, with a church or chapel at its
center and surrounded by a wall and even a moat.
8.3 The Waldensians
Waldensians
are a religious group that denied the authority of the Roman Catholic Church
while emphasizing the authority of the scripture and the need for all to study
it. The group was known for its lay preachers and evangelists and their
activities were proof to the inquisitor of the group’s heretical nature. The
waldensians went still further in shocking old time custom and claimed the
right to preach for women. Indeed laypersons were permitted to administer
communion and baptism. The foundation of Waldensian monasticism rested on three
practices: embracing poverty, preaching the Christian Gospels openly and
widely, and performing charitable works.[20]
8.4 The Cathari
Cathars
were groups of heretical Christians found in many parts of Europe during the 12th
and 13th centuries. Cathar was probably derived from the Greek word “pure”
reflecting the desire of the Cathars elites to purge them of contamination by a
sinful world. Unlike the Waldensians, the Cathari were a truly heretical sect
holding to a Manichean form of dualism. The most important rite of the Cathari
was the consolamentum, which involved the laying on of hand and guaranteed the
recipient absolution of past and future sins. Women were given position of
authority, while at the same time normal husband-wife sexual relationship were
denounced, and women were viewed as the instigators of sin.[21]
The doctrines of the Catharism were especially abhorrent to the Catholic
Church. The Cathar views of Christ were, He was not divine but only a messenger
of the good spiritual God sent to awaken people and Christ only seemed to have
taken human form and could thus have redeemed humankind by dying on the cross.
8.5 The Taborites
Taborite
emerges in the early 14th century. They were known as the most
radical branch of the Hussite movement. Although viewed as a heretical cult by
the Roman Catholic Church, they were fundamentalist 1n the tradition of John
Wycliffe and wished to confine to doctrines explicitly stated in the Bible. In
the light of this, it is even more interesting that they permitted women to
preach.
8.6 Benedictines Female
Benedictine
life is usually structured around prayer in the chapel seven times a day. The Benedictine women were from the beginning
is implied by the legend of St. Seholastica, who used to meet with her brother
Benedict to discuss their way of life in a house between their communities.
Women religious began following the Rule of St. Benedict in the sixth century.
Most women’s houses had at least a small male community of chaplains and often
lay brothers who helped with the manual work. Each Benedictine house was
independent. Nevertheless, bishops often wielded greater jurisdiction over
women’s houses than men’s monasteries, which looked to visiting abbots rather
than local bishops for supervision.[22]
Benedictine monasteries fostered many women mystics and prophets. Benedictine
monasteries were the center of lay communities to which they offered all kinds
of liturgical, educational, and health services.
8.7 Franciscans Female
The
Franciscan tradition intersects with the feminine monastic heritage since the
early 13th century. Throughout the centuries individual women or
small communities have lived an eremitic form of life. It is the small number
of enclosed monasteries of women who follow the rule of the third order of St.
Francis.
9. Conclusion
In
the midst of growing worldliness of the Church during the 3rd and 4th
centuries, the church lost its purpose of holy living and Christ-centered life.
There were some people who longed to have perfection in Christ, so they took a
separate way of life. Many people attract to this way of life and willing to
practice it. Therefore, men and women took up the ascetic life and formed
communities and later it paved way for monasticism. Specially, Christian
household played an important role in female asceticism. Many monasteries came
up for men and women. From these monasteries theology and tradition formed and
monasteries yielded development of literary development of the early church.
The monasteries from East and West played a significant role to the churches of
the world. The Christian monasticism
serves not only the religious purpose but also social and physical needs of the
people through various social activities till today.
Bibliography
Cairns,
Earle E. Christianity through the
Centuries. USA: Zondervan, 1996.
Dreuille, M. From East to West, A History of
Monasticism. New York: Crossroad
Publishing Company, 1999.
Dunn,
Marilyn. The Emergence of Monasticism:
From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages. Cornwall: Blackwell
Publishing, 2003.
Harmless,
W. Desert Christians: An Introduction to
the Literature of Early Monasticism. New York: Oxford University Press,
2004.
Hrangkhuma,
F. An Introduction to Church History.
Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 2002.
Imchen,
Narola. Women in the History of
Christianity. Jorhat; TDCC Publications, 2010.
Jones,
Robert. A Brief History of Western
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Kesich,
Lydia W. The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy. New York: ST Vladimir’s
Seminary Press, 1992.
Latouraette,
Kennet Scott. A History of Christianity. USA: Harper & Row Publisher, 1953.
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Sunni E. John Chrysostom on Wealth. Delhi: ISPCK, 2005.
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Williston. A History of the Christian
Church. UK: St. Edmundsbury Press, 1985.
Webliography
[1] Marilyn Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism: From the
Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages (Cornwall: Blackwell Publishing,
2003), 6.
[2] W Harmless, Desert Christians: An Introduction to the
Literature of Early Monasticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004),
18.
[3] Earle E Cairns,
Christianity through the Centuries
(USA: Zondervan, 1996), 145
[4] Marilyn Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism: From the
Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages…, 25.
[5] Robert Jones, A Brief History of Western Monasticism (Georgia:
Zondervan Publishing House, 2000), 10.
[6] Earle E Cairns,
Christianity through the Centuries…,
145.
[7] Kennet Scott
Latouraette, A History of Christianity (USA: Harper & Row Publisher, 1953),
226.
[8] Sunni E.
Mathew, John Chrysostom on Wealth
(Delhi: ISPCK, 2005), 22.
[9] Marilyn Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism: From the
Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages…,
24.
[10] Robert Jones, A
Brief History of Western Monasticism…, 25.
[11] Earle E Cairns,
Christianity through the Centuries…,
146.
[12] Williston
Walker, A History of the Christian Church
(UK: St. Edmundsbury Press, 1985), 155.
[13] Dreuille, M. From East to West, A History of
Monasticism (New York: Crossroad
Publishing Company, 1999), 63.
[14] Lydia W.
Kesich, The Historical Road of Eastern
Orthodoxy (New York: ST Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1992), 103.
[15] Kennet Scott
Latouraette, A History of Christianity (USA: Harper & Row Publisher,
1953),231.
[16] F Hrangkhuma, An Introduction to Church History (
Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 2002), 95.
[17] Marilyn Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism: From the
Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages…, 46.
[18] Narola Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity
(Jorhat; TDCC Publications, 2010), 66.
[19] Narola Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity…,
67.
[20] Narola Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity…,
67.
[21] Narola Imchen, Women in the History of Christianity…, 67.
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