Frankly I do not understand why Epicurus prefers to say that gods are
like men, rather than
men are like gods. - Cicero[1]
1. Introduction
Women in Church history have
played prominent roles in the life of Christianity even before technical terms like Feminism[2],
Patriarchy[3],
Androcentrism[4], Misogyny[5]
and Gynophobia[6] were unfamiliar/not-coined.
Until recent times, women were generally excluded from episcopal and clerical
positions within the Christian churches, however great numbers of women have
been influential in the life of the church - from contemporaries of Jesus, to
subsequent saints, theologians, doctors of the church, missionaries, abbesses,
nuns, mystics, founders of religious institutes, military leaders, monarchs and
martyrs. This paper aims to explain about the Women in early Church and their
prominent roles.
1.1. Context and Structure
Christianity emerged from
patriarchal societies that placed men in positions of authority in marriage,
society and government, and, cunningly or cleverly the religion restricted
membership of the priesthood to males only, in its early centuries it offered
women an enhanced social status and quickly found a wide following among women.
From the early church time,
the offices of teacher and sacramental minister were reserved for men
throughout most of the church in the East and West. Later, as religious sisters
and nuns, women came to play an important role in Christianity through convents
and abbeys and have continued through history to be active - particularly in
the establishment of schools, hospitals, nursing homes and monastic settlements.
In recent decades, Ordination of women has become increasingly common in some
Protestant churches but not in so called “Big Church”. Laywomen have also been
highly active in the wider life of churches, supporting the community work of
parishes.
2. Women
in Judaism
In the first century, Judaism-so central to the development
of Christianity reveals diverse perspectives on women and a wide range of
practices. The dominant model of a virtuous woman was one who remained at home
and obeyed her husband, a theme reflected in the book of Esther, for example.
Women were not required to fulfil most religious obligations apart from dietary
and sexual laws and the lighting of Sabbath candles.[7]
Although we get only a glimpse of first-century Judaism from later rabbinic literature,
strong continuities concerning attitudes toward women are present across the
centuries. Many rabbis regarded women as socially and religiously inferior to
men, and some even expressed contempt for them. Not only were men cautioned
against speaking to women in public. but also women were not permitted to be
witnesses in a court of law, nor were they to be counted in a quorum necessary
for the formation of a synagogue congregation. At the temple in Jerusalem, they
were to be restricted to an outer court; in the synagogues, they were to be
seated separately and were not permitted to read aloud or to assume any public
position. Perhaps most significant, they were not permitted to study the
scriptures. One rabbi vigorously made this point when he wrote, “Rather should
the words of the Torah be burned than to be entrusted to a woman.”[8]
Yet there was disagreement among the rabbis themselves on some of these points.
A minority argued that women should indeed study the Torah and that both women
and men be permitted to initiate divorce proceedings. And of course the
day-to-day reality of women’s lives often challenged official teaching. Women
and men were forced, for example, to relate and communicate in public places
simply to keep society functioning. Indeed, inscriptions from synagogues in
various parts of the Roman Empire give woman leadership titles such as mother
and elder. Bernadette J. Brooten concludes that these titles were more
than honorific; they reveal that women had liturgical, teaching, judicial and
financial responsibilities.[9]
2.1. Domestic Life: In Jewish culture the women
is considered as a person who stands under the instruction of a male
next-of-kin most of her life. When she is a girl, she is dependent on her
father, or if an orphan on her brother or other close kinsman. After marriage
her husband becomes her master. Only if she is divorced or widowed does an
oriental Jewish woman acquire a more or less independent status. She was even
suppressed to express her views, for that even within the family circle; a
woman had to take permission from her husband and father. Within the household
women provide all kinds of free service to their children, husbands and others
members of the family throughout their lives. However, their husbands and others
could expropriate women’s labour. However, the Jewish women were received basic
religious education at home. They were taught the oral ‘Halakar’ by teachers.
Even though the words of Jewish women were accepted at home, their right of
inheritance and right to divorce were seriously restricted.[10]
2.2. Marriage and Sexuality: Women in the ancient Hebrew
was expected to marry and bear children. Her primary duties were reproduction
and nurturing, aimed at building up the household of her husband. An ideal wife
is often portrayed as intelligent and resourceful but her fulfilment was found
in serving her husband and particularly in supplying him with many sons. The
Hebrew woman got married shortly after the onset of menstruation. Regarding the
marriage of a Hebrew woman, a ‘Betrothal’ was arranged by their respective
parents and contracted in binding agreement that could be severed only by
formal divorce. A woman who entered into this agreement should remain clean,
which means proof of the bride’s virginity was required, and she was expected
to remain chaste as a wife.[11]
Divorce was common even among the devout Jews in the ancient
Hebrew culture. However, two schools of thoughts in Judaism differ in this
issue of divorce. The school of ‘Shammai ’ insisted that it was possible only
in case of adultery, while the school of ‘Hiller’ maintained that there might
be myriad reason, such as spinning in the street, talking with a stranger, a
spoiled dinner, or lining another woman who was more attractive.[12]
2.3. Socio-economic life: The Jewish women did all
the domestic work within and outside the home. They ground the meal, baked the
bread, cleaned and washed the cloths, as well as spinning, weaving and sewing
garments for the family. However, outside the home, she fetched water from the
village well, collected and gathered firewood, drove animals to the pastor and
worked in the field. Within the community circle she might serve as midwife,
nurse or attendant. Men controlled women’s labour ever outside the home. Even
though women did a lot productive works, yet she was neither recognized nor
paid for. Women were excluded from better-paid jobs, forced to sell their
labour at very low rate and work within the family circle.[13]
2.4. Religious Life: According to the Jewish rite
women were allowed to enter the services but not particularly encouraged unlike
their male counterpart, but enjoyed a better place than her gentile sister. The
Jewish law did not considered women who had recently given birth as unclean and
were not allowed to enter the worship service. The priesthood was restricted to
women, but they have enjoyed some leadership as elders, leader of synagogue and
mother of the synagogue at home. Regular attendance at the synagogue was not
compulsory for women, they were seated in separate sections and their part in
the services was strictly receptive. Even the oral reading of the scriptures
was not given to women. Rabbis opposed women as teachers in schools and even in
homes except as teachers of their own children. This subordinate role of
women in the patriarchal Israelite society led the Jewish women to a position
of inferiority in the religious life.[14]
3. Women
in Roman Society
Grew-Roman culture was dominated by an honour/shame ideology
in which men was rewarded for public effort and achievement while women were to
guard their “shame” or chastity by remaining obedient and secluded. Yet Roman
women appeared freely in a variety of public places as well as managed their
households. it was not unusual for wealthy women to be patrons of clubs, and
both Greek and Roman women were accepted as priestesses and prophetesses. Women
who had Roman citizenship enjoyed the economic security and social privileges
of property ownership and inherited wealth In those portions of the empire more
directly under the cultural influence of Rome the position of women was
somewhat more free.[15]
3.1. Domestic Life: Roman women enjoyed much
greater freedom in the domestic circle than the women in Judaism. She accorded
deep respect and enjoyed a higher position in society. However, she was bound
throughout her life to a male protector or tutor as father, husband or son. The
consent of the tutor was nwessary for a woman to buy or sell property. to make
a will or to negotiate a divorce. A Roman male citizen acted as household head
and his wife oversaw the running of the household according to
his order. However widows of citizen men and a few independent wealthy women
sewed as household heads with authority over other merchants.[16]
3.2. Marriage and Sexuality: The primary responsibility of
a Roman woman was to marry and produce an heir, and every citizen women had to
marry a citizen male. They were not allowed to exercise their power in marriage
smce the marriage was ananged when she was about fourteen. In the Roman society
prostitution was frequently of a high sordid nature. Adultery and divorce were
common during the Imperial Rome.[17]
3.3. Socio-economic life: In social life women were
allowed to accompany their husbands to certain public events. Wealthy women
also contributed to civil causes by erecting baths, gymnasia, temples or
statues for the use and enjoyment of the population as a whole. Their
participation in civic affairs gave them a much deeper sense of civic
responsibility. The education of women was considered important and desirable
in the Roman society. Even within poor families both daughters and sons received
at least a rudimentary education. Women in Roman society enjoyed much economic
freedom. Their primary sources of income were to work in the textile industry.
In the taverns they were innkeeper, barmaids and waitress. While in the theater
they were actress, musicians, gymnasts and even gladiators. Many poor women and
former slave women worked as vendors of various types goods such as salt,
sesame seeds, fish.[18]
Women shared a common status because they lived and worked in settings.
3.4. Religious Life: In Rome many women took a
prominent part in public activity, usually in religious settings. Often public
games in honor of specific gods were presided over by patrician women. Many are
recorded as having attained the highest priesthoods in the western portions of
Asia. In the city of Rome itself the wife of the Pontifex Maximus took the lead
in the worship of Bona Dea and when she died her husband had to resign his
position. Female priests were also attached to the worship of Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus
or Rex Sacrorum. The male priests in these same temples had to be married and
also had to resign when their wives died.[19]
Roman women served as priestesses in the cults throughout the
Empire, responsible for the sanctuary rituals and ceremonies, its maintenance,
and its protection liturgically. They were also responsible for ritual
sacrifices, pronouncing the prayers and presiding at the festivals of the
deity. In some cases, women were identified as high priestesses. The positions
and duties of Roman women show that, they were not religiously limited in the
first centuries.[20]
Eventhough the Roman women enjoyed certain freedom, in
general it could be said that, both Jewish and Greco-Roman culture, therefore,
reinforced the silencing and subordination of women but at the same time made
it possible for Christianity to accept active women members and powerful women
leaders.[21]
4. Prominent
roles played by women in the early church and Women’s ministry.
Acts of the Apostles and
other New Testament writings give a clear picture of the roles played by women
in the early church. They played important roles as leaders in relief works,
especially giving aids to the needy. They also played the role of Patron to
certain congregations. House churches
were hosted by wealthy women comers, as in the early times, the believers
gathered in homes for worship, exhortation and prayer. Women also functioned as
prophets and teachers. Later the ministry of the word was understood as men‘s
ministry and ministry of service was the arena of women. Prophesying was an
area which was totally attributed to women in the early church.
4.1. Evangelists and House Church Leaders: Women were clearly involved in the spread of
Christianity and in the establishment of new congregations. which met in private
houses. In Romans l6, Paul refers to women who have been his coworkers in the
evangelization of the Hellenistic world and commends Mary, Tryphaena. Tryphosa,
and Persis for having “labored hard” in the Lord. In the same chapter, he pays
tribute to the outstanding missionary work, including teaching doctrine to
Apollo, of Priscilla and her husband Aquila. Priscilla‘s significance may be
highlighted by the fact that she is mentioned before her husband in four out of
six references, a literary device to suggest importance. Some biblical scholars
believe that Priscilla’s role in teaching doctrine is reported without comment
because it was not an unusual role for womeno In Phil. 4:2, Euodia and Syntyche
are described as women who have worked or “struggled“ side by side with Paul.
To emphasize their importance, Paul mentions them in the body of the letter
rather than the salutation. There is no indication in these passages that women
were subordinate to or dependent upon Paul‘s house churches were crucial to the
success of the early mission efforts because they provided support and
sustenance to the growing Christian congregations. They were the places in
which the Lord's Supper was celebrated and the gospel preached. It is recorded
that women provided the facilities for some groups, especially if the women
were wealthy and prominent members of the community. Acts l6: l4, for example,
mentions Lydia, a successful businesswoman who offered her house to the
Christian church. She is baptized along with her household, which she appears
to have ruled. Although many interpreters of the New Testament in the past have
translated the name in Col. 4: l4 as the male name “Nymphas,” it is generally
agreed that the verse correctly reads, “Nympha and the church in her house.” The
house of Mary, the mother of John Mark , was also used in this way (Acts
12:12).“[22]
4.2. Deacons in the Early Church: Women were appointed as dcaconess as helpers for the male bishop, and
also for women ministry in the early church. The church was instructed to use
them as visitors to Christian women and as assistants in the baptismal rituals.
They could teach the women and instruct them to keep the seal of baptism in
purity and holiness. For this cause the ministry of woman deacons was
especially needful and important. By the end of the third century women deacons
were appointed by the Bishop form the entire congregation, although as time
passed, they were required to be virgins or widows. The women deacons visited
the sick women in their homes and anointed women at the time of baptism and
also receive t m when they emerged from the ,They were regarded as part of the
clergy, and were ordained in their clerical office. However they did not
allowed to assist at the Lord’s supper.[23]
4.3. Female Prophets: Women tilled the role of prophet in the early churches. Prophets were not
formally ordained or appointed by the congregations; rather, their authority
was based on their reception of immediate revelation and inspiration from the
Holy Spirit. Such revelation involved the clarification of texts, instruction
in Christian living, and the discernment of God’s will for individuals and
communities. In this way, women contributed to the construction of early
Christian teaching. The Didache, a manual of church order from the second
century, claims that the traveling prophets filled a role of great importance,
some celebrating the Lord’s Supper. The four daughters of Philip were prophets
(Acts 21:9) who ministered first in Caesarea and then moved to Hierapolis in
Asia Minor. Montanus and two women, Priscilla and Maxima, led a religious
movement that developed at the end of the second century. They continued the
tradition that God speaks through believers cuter than church officials. Women
such as Priscilla, whose oracles were collected and circulated in writing, were
held in great honor as “prophetesses.”[24]
4.4. Widows: One role for women that is
dealt with extensively in early Christian literature is that of widow. originally widows were simply the worthy
recipients of charity from churches, provided that they were known for their righteous
lives and completely without other resources. by third century however, widows
also began to appear in many places as members of a special “order” to which
they were appointed. To qualify for this special appointment. a woman generally
had to be over sixty years and married only once. Through church orders
appealing to the authority of the apostles, leaders often tried to place the widows
under the control of bishops and bring an end to some of their activities. The
“good widows” were meek, silent and stayed at home-fixed, like the “altar of
God”; a designation that shows how they were respected for their spiritual
ministries. Eventually, the order of widows was absorbed into the much more
highly controlled positions of deaconess and virgin.”[25]
4.5. Virgins: One group of women in the
early church functioned in the office of “virgins”. These were the younger
women or girls of the community who had been raised in the church homes. “They
do not seem to have been assigned to any specific duties in connection with
this title, but were considered as general assistants.”[26]
By 3rd century they were fully organized into an office. There is
evidence for this from numerous statements in the writings of the early Fathers
in the Apostolic Age.
4.6. Missionary: The
role of missionary in the early church was carried out by many women. Priscilla
was one of the outstanding missionaries who involved in the spread of
Christianity of new congregations. She was the wife of Aquila and they are
always mentioned as a pair. They were important missionaries in Corinth and
Ephesus. it is seen that sometimes Aquila is mentioned first. and sometimes
Priscilla, which clearly suggests that they were genuine partners in ministry
and that Priscilla was not Aquila’s subordinate. There is possibility that she
worked alongside Aquila and Paul making tents. Ancient church father Origen
said at Priscilla’s example legitimated women’s teaching ministry. A German
scholar, Adolf Hamack suggested that Priscilla might be the unknown author of
the anonymous epistle to the Hebrews.[27]
4.7. Apostles: From
the First century women were indicated to have been apostles in the early
church. They had an important place in the teachings and ministry of Jesus and
this is confirmed in the linal days of his life were women not for him as
apostles or as ones who are sent to bear witness to the gospel. One such
example is Junias (Rom. l6:7). who is considered the first among the apostles.
Andronicus and Junie are commended for their outstanding work in spreading the
gospel. Again, translators in the past, finding it inconceivable that a woman
would be called “apostle,” used the male name “Junias.” Junia. however, was a
common female name in the lirst century, and church leaders as late as the
medieval period had no problem accepting the female form. Judging from all the
ancient records. there IS no evidence of the name Junias being used for male
name at this time. Greatest scholars of today states that In all extant records
there has never been a male Junia.[28]
Gospel amounts of the risen Jesus also reveal that women could fulfill the
requirements for the role of apostle.
4.8. Disciples: There
were evidences for female disciple in the early church. Tabitha is an important
person among the community at Joppa. She is identified as a disciple; the only
woman explicitly identified as a disciple in Acts and is the only occurrence of
the feminine form of disciple anywhere in the New Testament. She was deeply
valued by the Joppa community for her good works and acts of charity. She is also valued as a philanthropist, a
woman mostly seemingly a window herself, who takes care of the needy, providing
aid to many people mostly the poor and the widows out of her own resource. Her
example of service to the people may have been the key instrument in developing
church offices that focused on services.[29]
5. Conclusion
Christian art from the first
and second centuries depicts women performing various ministerial activities,
administering the Lord's Supper, teaching, baptizing, caring for the physical
needs of the congregation and leading public prayers. cunningly or cleverly,
when church was institutionalized women were excluded.
In comparing the timeline
and by weighing women roles and their struggles right from early Church to 21st
century, we can clearly express that even though the prominent roles of women
are inseparable, though the terms like Feminism, Patriarchy, etc. are aware or
unaware, the struggle remains the same. It is our duty to express that again
and again until the goal is achieved, especially in Church and Society today.
As a matter of fact, this quote by Cicero totally fits even after 2000 years, Frankly I do not understand why Epicurus
prefers to say that gods are like men, rather than men are like gods.
6. Bibliography
Bhasin, Kamala. What is Patriarchy?. New Delhi: Raj Press, 1993.
Biale, Rachel. Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of
Women’s Issues in Halakhic Sources.
New York: Schocken, 1984.
Culver, Elsie T. Women
in the World of Religion. New York:
Doubleday & Company Inc., 1967.
Fiorenza, Elizabeth
Schussler. In Memory of Her. London: SCM Press, 1983.
Gill, Deboraj M and
Barbara Cavaness. God’s Women, Then
and Now. Oklahoma: Grace & Truth
Publication, 2015.
Hununi, R.L, Ed. Transforming
Theology for Empowering Women. Jorhat Barkataki & Co., Pvt. Ltd,1999.
Imchen, Narola. Women in the History of Christianity. Jorhat: TDCC, 2010.
Kennedy, Philip. Twentieth-Century Theologians a
new introduction to modern Christian thought. New York: I.B.Tauris & Co
Ltd, 2010.
Kung, Hans. Women in
Christianity. New York: Continuum, 2001.
MacHaffie, Barbara J. Her Story: Women in Christian Tradition.
Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
Tucker, Ruth A and
Walter. L. Liefeld. Daughters of the
Church. Secunderabad: OM-Authentic,
2006.
[3]
Patriarchy is a system of organizing human societies in such a way that men,
normally elderly men, govern younger men, women and children. The word
patriarchy means ‘rule by a father’. A patriarch is ‘a father who rules’. In
ancient Roman law, a paterfamilias (‘father of the family’) ruled everyone and
everything belonging to a familia (‘family’), including enslaved people, land
and animals.
[7]
Jewish feminist scholars
like Judith Plaskow is on the opinion that Christian feminist literature and
popular reasoning perpetuate anti-Jewish notions when extoling Jesus the
feminist, over against patriarchal Judaism. 0n the other hand Christian
feminist scholars cannot take Jewish warning seriously enough.
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